First  Uh{Tak;,  i 

Church  School 

Buffalo. 


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QiV 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 
AND  RELIGIOUS  PEDAGOGY 


Other  Works  by  the  Same  Author 

THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  OF  TO-DAY. 

RELIGIOUS    EDUCATION.     A   Complete   Text 
Book. 

SUNDAY   SCHOOL  TEACHING. 

THE  HISTORY  AND  USE  OF  THE  PRAYER 
BOOK. 

HANDBOOK  ON  CHRISTIAN  DOCTRINE. 

THE  MAKING  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

FROM  THE  EXILE  TO  THE  ADVENT. 

AGELESS     HYMNS     OF     THE     CHRISTIAN 
CHURCH. 

A    HANDBOOK   OF    RELIGIOUS    PICTURES. 

THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  PROBLEM  SOLVED. 

THE    STUDENT'S     HANDBOOK    OF     BIBLE 
GEOGRAPHY. 

STEREOPTICON    LECTURES    ON    THE    MIS- 
SION FIELDS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF 

Child  Study  and  Religious 
Pedagogy 

In  Simple  and  Practical  Form 

Fully  Illustrated 


By  / 

THE  REV.  WILLIAM  WALTER  SMITH,  A.M.,M.D. 

Graduate  Student  of  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University.     Member  of   the   General    Board 

of  Religious  Education.     Secretary  of  the  New  York  Sunday  School  Commission. 

Sunday  School  Field  Secretary  for  the  Second  Department. 


WITH  FOREWORD 

By 

THE  REV.  ROBERT  P.  KREITLER 


f 


APR  7   1966 

MILWAUKEE  a 

THE  YOUNG  CHURCHMAN  CO.     n  ^WJT^ 

London:    A.  R.  Mowbray  &  Co.     -^    f\1^J)%'^.ZPL'S^^^\^ 
1912  '^--  ^ 

First  Unitarian 

Church  School 

Buffalo. 


COPYRIGHT  BY 

THE  YOUNG  CHURCHMAN  CO. 
1912 


DEDICATED 

To  THE  Host  of  Faithful  Teachers  of  Religion 
IN  America,  "Who  have  Liberty  enough,  and  Time 
enough,  and  Head  enough,  and  Heart  enough, 
to     be     masters     in     the     Kingdom     of     Life." 


CONTENTS 

PART  I.— THE  CHILD  AND   CHILD-STUDY,  OR 
THE  PROCESS  OF  MIND  GROWTH. 

The  Whom  of  Teaching. 

Chapter  I. — The  Child  in  the  Sunday  School 

The  Purpose  of  this  Course — What  "the  Child"'  ]\Ieans — 
The  Teacher's  Power — Impressions  of  Early  Environment — 
The  Psychology  of  the  Child — The  Nervous  System — Com- 
plexity of  the  Human  Body — The  Brain's  Relation  to  tlie 
Nerve  Centers — Cerebrum  and  Cerebellum. 

Chapter  II. — How  We  Think  and  Learn 

Stream  of  Consciousness — Acquiring  New  Ideas — Apper- 
ception Explained — Realizing  an  Idea — Definite  Stages  of 
Thinking — What  "Paying  Attention"  Is — Types  of  Atten- 
tion— How  Not  to  Gain  Attention — Law  of  Voluntary 
Attention. 

Chapter  III. — Education  and  Character 

Memory  and  Its  Value — Types  of  INIemory — Will — Types 
of  Will — Opposition  of  Knowing.  Feeling  and  Willing — 
Deliberation  —  Deliberation,  Reflection,  and  Willing  —  In- 
stincts, Native  and  Acquired — Habits — Habit,  the  End  of 
School  Work — Sub-conscious  Field  of  Habit. 

Chapter  IV. — The  Stages  of  Develofaient     -----     - 

/.  Primary  Age,  1-6  years  old. 
I.  Physical  Characteristics:  Restlessness — Activity — Love 
of  Play — Emulation — Savagery.  II.  Mental  Characteris- 
tics: Dependence — Faith  and  Trust — Personification — 
Self-Unconsciousness — Imitativeness — Curiosity'- —  Imagina- 
tion —  Concreteness  —  Conscience  Undeveloped  —  ]\Iemorj' 
Weak — Sex-unconsciousness — Tabular  Summary  of  Traits 
During  Kindergarten  and  Primary  Ages. 

Chapter  V. — The  Stages  of  Development 

Primary  Age  Continued.     II.  Later  Childhood,  6  to  J2  years. 
Later    Childhood.      I.    Physical    Characteristics:      Tireless 
Activity — Hero-Worship — Senses     ]Most      Noticeable      Fea- 
ture— Irresistible    Impulsiveness  —  Courage  —  Truant   Pro- 


viii  CONTENTS 

clivitit'S.  IT.  Mental  Characteristics:  Risinj^  Desire  for 
liKlepencIeiiee  —  8ense  of  Humor  Crude  —  ]3ominance  of 
]*reseiit — Iniitativeness — Group  Ajje — Ketentiveiiess  of  .Mem- 
ory— JJesire  for  Affection — Collecting'  Instinct — Owner- 
ship— Constructiveness — Certainty — Rise  of  Conscience. 
Tabular  Summary  of  Characteristics  During  Later  Child- 
hood. 

Chapter  VI. — Stages  of  Development 

///.  Early  Adolescence,  12  to  IS  years  old. 
I.  Bodily  Changes:  Age  of  Awkwardness — Bodily  Changes 
Predominate — Sex- Attraction.  II.  Mental  Changes:  Novel 
in  Age  of  Romance — Solf-Conscious  and  Sensitive — Age  of 
Ideals — Developing  Reasoning — "Storm  and  Stress"'  Period 
— Conversion  Period. 

CiiAPTEU  VII. — Stages  of  Development 

A  do  lesccnce  Con  t  in  tied. 
What     is     Conversion? — Curve     of     Conversion — So-called 
"Gang"  Age — Strengthening  of  Conscience — "Aufkliining" — 
Development  of   Will — ]\Ioral   Sense — Dime   Novel   Stage — 
Ritual  and  Adolescence. 

Chapter  VIII. — Stages  of  Development 

IV.  Later  Adolescence,  J8  to  25  years  old. 
Chief  Characteristics:  Philosophic  Insight — Adult  Age — 
Limitations  of  Progress — Summary  of  Chief  Characteris- 
tics— Tabular  Summary  of  Development  Traits  During 
Adolescence — Relation  between  Body  and  ^lind — Types — - 
Sex-Differences — Motor  and  Sensory  Types — Temperament — 
Temperament  and  Christianity — Working  Table  of  Tem- 
perament— Suggestion  to  Teachers — Tabular  Summary  of 
All  Development  Traits.  , 

PART  II.— THE  CURRICULUM. 

The  What  of  Teaching. 

Chapter  IX. — Grading  the  Sunday  School 

What  is  a  Graded  School — Practical  Grading — How  to 
Grade  a  Small  School — Principles  of  a  Well-rounded  Cur- 
riculum— Curriculum  of  S.  S.  Commission  of  New  York — 
Psychological  Principles  of  Child  Nature — Best  Practical 
Way  to  Grade. 

PART  III.— THE  LESSON  AND  ITS   PREPARATION. 
The  Wherewithal  of  Teaching. 

Chapter  X. — How  to  Prepare  the  Lesson 

How  to  Prepare  to  Study  the  Lesson — Herbartian  or  Formal 
Steps — The  Opposite  or  Deductive  Method  Has  Its  Formal 


CONTENTS 

Steps  Likewise — A  Tliird  Kind  of  Kocitation  is  tlio  So- 
called  "Qucstion-and-Answer,"  or  "Heuristic"  Recitation — 
Informational  Studies — Review  Lessons — Logical  Studies — 
Lesson  Title — Question  Method  in  Introduction— Correla- 
tion —  Deduction  Versus  Induction — Reviews — Examina- 
tions— Tj'pes  in  Teaching — '"Point  of  Contact" — How  ]\Iuch 
Children'  Know — Child's  Vocabulary — Grafting  Unknown 
to  Known. 

PART  IV.— THE  CLASS. 

The  How  of  Teaching. 

Chapter  XI. — How  to  Interest   Scholars  and  Secure  At- 
tention       

Attention  and  Interest — What  Interest  Is — How  to  Hold 
Attention — Will  Basis  of  Voluntary  Attention — Physical 
Means  in  Obtaining  Attention — Troublesome  Pupils — Kill- 
ing Interest — False  Views  of  Interest — Fatigue — Signs  of 
Fatigue. 

Chapter  XII. — How  to  Keep  Order  and  Conduct  the  Reci- 
tation Properly     

What  is  Order — Use  of  Secondary  Ends  as  ^Motives  to 
Order — Difference  Between  Securing  and  Maintaining 
Order — Securing  Ordei- — Agencies  for  Keeping  Order — 
Restlessness  Cause  of  Disorder — Emotions  as  Incentives  to 
Order — Pupils  Innately  Disorderly — Penalties — Disorderly 
Teachers — Right  JNIethod  of  Conducting  Recitation — Review 
Steps — Balancing  Recitation  with  Instruction — How  to  Se- 
cure Balance. 

Chapter  XIII. — Questioning  and  Teaching 

Importance  of  Questioning — IMethod  of  Sunday  School 
Questioning — Kinds  of  Questions — Curiosity  Kindled  by 
Questions- — How  to  Learn — How  to  Question — Character  of 
Questions — Questioning  Older  Pupils — Proper  Recitation 
Balance  in  Questioning. 

Chapter  XIV. — How    to    Use    Stories,    Illustrations,    and 
Objects      

Illustrations  and  How  to  Use  Them — To  What  Does  Illus- 
tration Appeal — Dangers  in  Illustration — Characteristics 
of  a  Good  Illustration — Marks  of  a  Good  Story — Points  to 
be  Remembered  in  Story -Tel  ling — Brief  Rules — How  to 
Learn  How — Varieties  of  Illustrative  Material — Types  of 
Pictures — Graded  Stereoscopic  Work — INIanual  Work — 
Map-^Making  in  Relief — In  Flat — ilodelic  Work. 

Chapter  XV. — Clinching    Our    Teaching    for    Permanent 
Results     

Training  of  Memory,  Habits,  and  Will — Kinds  of  Memory 
Wanted — Laws    of    Memory — How    to    ^Memorize — Reason- 


X  CONTENTS 

ing — Forgetting — jMemoritcr  Work^Roasons  for  Written 
Answer  ^Vork — Quest ion-and- Answer  Books — S])('cialization 
in  Habit  Formation — Kiiles  of  Habit  Formation— Elements 
of  Moral  Training — Cultivation  of  Doing. 

PART  v.— THE  SCOPE  AND  AIM  OF  RELIGIOUS 
INSTRUCTION. 

The  Why  and  the  Who  of  Teaching. 

Chapter  XVI. — The  Will  axd  Character 

Training  the  Will — Desire  and  Will — Choice  and  Deeision — 
Training  the  Judgment — Every  Lesson  Must  Function  in 
Doing — Music  and  Will — Inter-relation  of  Intellect,  Feel- 
ing, and  Will — Will-breaking — "Call"  of  the  Teacher. 


FOREWORD 

Personality  plus  something !  This  is  the  ideal  held  before 
tlie  Sunday  School  teacher  to-day.  In  the  "something"  is 
included  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  child  study  and 
pedagogy.  For  we  are  discovering,  as  the  author  of  the  Book 
of  Proverbs  stated  long  ages  ago,  "life  itself"  (and  he  said 
"the  very  soul")  "without  knowledge  is  not  a  blessing."  The 
result  of  this  discovery  has  been  to  awaken  a  desire  for  helpful 
guide  books  which  will  relate  many  of  the  intricate  studies 
hitherto  associated  only  with  secular  education,  to  those  of 
the  Sunday  School  and  religious  education.  A  higher  type 
of  leadership  is  being  sought,  a  trained  leadership,  which 
shall  be  able  to  cope  with  the  complex  and  progressive  prob- 
lems of  the  child  in  its  religious  life,  as  adequately  as  has 
been  done  in  every  other  direction. 

The  upheaval  and  change  in  secular  educational  methods 
have  already  affected,  to  a  considerable  degree,  those  of  re- 
ligious education  as  we  find  them  in  the  Sunday  School.  A 
frank  questioning,  both  of  the  older  •  methods  of  Sunday 
School  work,  and  of  our  right  to  lose  the  benefit  of  the  newer 
ways,  is  heard  with  becoming  insistence.  We  are,  therefore, 
glad  to  welcome  a  book  which  places  within  our  reach  the 
knowledge  and  experience  of  a  growing  class  of  helpful  lead- 
ers in  secular,  and  also  religious  educational  circles. 

The  practical  difficulties  in  the  training  of  teachers  for 
tlie  Sunday  School  are  so  many  and,  to  some,  so  great,  that 


xii  FOREWORD 

much  of  advice  given  in  l)ooks  of  this  character  sounds  like 
counsels  of  perfection.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  small 
country  school^  or  of  those  where  teachers  are  few  and  hard 
to  retain,  or  where  busy  clergymen  have  neither  time  nor 
ability  to  devote  to  this  admittedly  important  subject.  They 
would  seem  insurmountable^  if  there  were  not  accumulating 
a  goodly  array  of  testimony  from  every  type  of  Sunday 
School,  under  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  environment,  mani- 
festing a  keen  interest  in  the  Forward  ]\[ovement  of  Religious 
Education. 

That  there  is  an  increase  in  the  campaign  for  trained 
Sunday  School  teachers  is  evident  to  those  alive  to  the  trend 
of  affairs  in  this  particular.  The  need  for  another  edition  of 
Dr.  Smith's  manual  of  1903,  on  "Sunday  School  Teaching," 
after  several  editions  had  been  exhausted,  is  a  hopeful  sign. 
That  this  manual  found  its  way  into  widely  scattered  places, 
with  demands  for  a  more  comprehensive  treatment  of  its 
subject,  gives  an  indication  of  how  rapidly  the  movement  is 
progressing.  The  larger  text  book,  "Religious  Education," 
coming  from  our  author's  pen  in  l!)Oi),  contained  a  wealth 
of  material  for  leaders  of  training  classes,  and  students  in 
theological  seminaries.  The  vei'v  richness  and  variety  of  its 
contents  ])r()\ed  eiiibarrassing  to  tlic  average  lay  teacher,  so 
that  the  necessities  of  tlic  siluaiiou  (Icinandcd  a  volume  such 
as  this  present  work. 

It  should  be  liclpful  lo  tliose  who  are  familial'  with  llie 
"Religious  Education,"  following  as  it  does  the  larger  work 
in  its  general  order  and  plan.  Eventually,  the  ideals  cm- 
Ijodicd  in  "Some  ]*]lemenls  of  Child  Sludy  and  Sunday  School 
I*edagogy"  must  ))ecome  of  real  value  to  lay  teachers  in 
Sunday  Schools  everywhere.  Tiie  book  will  aid  those  who 
are  teachers  in  the  ]<jpisc()])al  (liurch,  because  it  is  in  accord 
with  the  demands  of  the  official  'IV-acher  Training  ('ourse 
of  the  General  Board  of  Religious  Education  of  that  C!hurch. 


FOREWORD  xiii 

The  Board  requires  sixteen  hours  on  eliihl  study  and  religious 
pedagogy. 

This  further  effort  of  so  experienced  a  Sunday  Seliool 
leader  and  trained  pedagogue  as  the  author,  will  be  of  worth 
to  those  who  are  seeking  teacher's  certificates,  or  diplomas, 
in  Training  Schools  for  Eeligious  "Workers.  In  fact,  any 
Sunday  School  teacher,  realizing  the  seriousness  of  his  or 
her  work,  with  all  its  op])ortunities;  appreciating  the  demands 
of  the  child  for  efficient  methods,  and  believing  in  the  need 
for  raising  the  standard  of  Religious  Education,  will  find  a 
careful  study  of  this  book  repaying  many  times  the  effort 
expended.  No  one  can  answer  the  question,  "Have  I  done 
everything  to  fit  myself  for  the  high  task  of  teaching  in  the 
Sunday  School  ?"'  until  there  is  some  acquaintance  with  the 
problems  so  well  stated  and  explained  here. 

The  suggested  volumes  for  collateral  reading,  with  one 
of  prime  importance  at  the  head  of  each  chapter,  and  the 
complete  bibliography  at  the  end,  should  make  it  possible 
to  select  for  the  Home,  as  well  as  for  Reference  Libraries 
and  special  study,  vital  and  influential  books.  Many  are  of 
utmost  value  to  parents.  Rop.Eirr  P.  Krkitler. 

Mount  A^ernon,  New  York, 

January,  1912. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY  AND 
RELIGIOUS  PEDAGOGY 


SYLLABUS  OF  CHAPTER   I. 
THE  CHILD   IN  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL 

SUGGESTED  KEAUIXG: — The  Study  of  Child  Nature,  Elizabeth 
Hunison. 

Note. — Undei-  each  C'liapter  we  shall  recommend  some  one  book 
with  the  urgent  suggestion  that  teachers  who  can  spare  the  time, 
and  desire  to  master  this  course  thoroughly,  either  purchase  this  book 
or  borrow  it  from  a  library,  reading  it  parallel  with  the  course,  in 
order  that  such  reading  may  illuminate  and  assist  in  applying  the 
principles  which  in  such  a  brief  text  book  as  this  are  necessarily 
condensed. 

sum:\l\ry. 

r  1.  Child   Nature,   or  the   Process 
I  of  Mind  Growth,  Educational 

Teaching  demands  Knowledge  of  J  Psychology-. 

!   2.  Pedagogj',  Education,  How  to 

t^  Teach. 

Old  Education  considered  only — L  Teacher;   2.  Material. 
New  Education  considers — L  Child  first;   2.  Material;   3.  Teacher. 
Old  Education  concerned  with  either  Heart  or  Head  Side. 
New  Education  with  Heart  and  Head,  building  up  Conduct  or  Char- 
acter. 
Character  is  the  result  of  Hei-edity,  acted  upon  by  Environment. 
Thus  "Every  Lesson  must  function  in  Doing  To-day." 
Education  is  the  Opening  of  Powers,  Unfolding  of  Life. 
Heredity  gives  power  to  respond  to  Impressions  from  without. 
Early  Environment    (and  Heredity)    count  for  most. 


JIIK  EIJO.MKNTS  OF  CHILD  .STL  DY 


Xorvous  System  is  ^ 


Infancy    is    a    IVriod    of    Plastifity.       Hence    Period    important    for 

Education. 
The  New  Tsycliology  is  unitary;   tlie  Old  divisional. 
Man    repeats    his    race-evolution    in    his    development,    physical    and 
mental. 

fUrain 

Cerebrum. 
Cerebelhim. 

Pons  Varolii  and  Medulla  Oblongata. 
S]jinal  Cord  and  Centers. 
Nerves  ( Neurons ) . 
^  Nerve   Endings. 

All  Tissues  are  uMiervated  by  Neurons.     At  least  three  billion  such 

Neurons. 

r  («)    Inconscious,       Involuntary       Action 

!.„.>..       •  li  •      i  (Simple  Refle.K). 

Impressions  may  result  in  ^    ,,,    ,,         .  r       i      ^  i    i- 

1    (o)    Conscious,  Involuntary  Action. 

(^  (c)    Conscious,  Voluntaiy  Action. 

Muscular  Functions  are  Eocalized  on  the  Brain  Cortex. 

Sensory  and   ^lotor  Nerves  communicate   with   such   Centers  on   the 

Cortex. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  CHILD   IN   THE   SUNDAY  SCHOOL 

In  the  sixteen  brief  Chapters  of  this  Handbook,  we  are 
undertaking  to  cover  the  two  foundation  subjects  which  lie 
at  the  bottom  of  all  proper  teaching,  whether  of  the  Sunday 
School  or  of  the  Day  School.  These  two  subjects  are :  The 
Study  of  the  Child  and  Religious  Pedagogy.  The  Study  of 
the  Child  is  variously  called  Child  Xature,  Child  Psycho- 
logy, the  Process  of  Mind  Growth,  and  Psychology.  When 
we  view  Psychology  from  the  standpoint  of  its  application 
to  Education  or  Teaching,  we  call  it  Educational  Psycho- 
logy. Its  study  and  the  application  of  its  principles  lead 
directly  to  what  is  termed  "Pedagogy,"  or,  in  collegiate 
circles,  simply  "Education."  As  the  student  reads  the  Chap- 
ters on  Psychology,  attention  should  constantly  be  focused 
on  the  application  of  the  principles  of  mind-growth  to  the 
actual  work  of  the  Sunday  School.  This  Study  of  the  Child, 
by  which  the  child's  interests  and  mental  development  are 
made  the  basis  of  both  our  method  of  teaching  and  the  sub- 
jects to  be  taught,  constitutes  the  difference  between  the  Old 
Education  and  the  New.  The  Old  Education  considered  all 
children  alike,  and  treated  them  all  alike.  The  only  factors 
considered  were  the  Teacher  and  the  Material.  The  New 
Education  looks  at  the  child  first,  and  sees  his  needs,  and 
then  the  opportunities  to  develop  his  powers.  Just  because 
the  New  Education  begins  with  the  child's  interests,  or  what 


4  TlIK  KLKMKNTS  OK  (.'HI  LI)  yTUDY 

someone  has  termed  "The  Boy"s  End  of  the  Sunday  Se-hool,"' 
it  is  vital  and  attractive. 

Again,  the  New  Education  realizes  that  ''Life''  spells 
"Conduct";  that  the  i^rimary  reason  for  all  education  is  bet- 
ter living.  Therefore,  character  is  the  ultimate  end,  and  not 
merely  the  ultimate  end,  but  the  pi'cscnt  end  of  the  Xew 
Education.  Therefore,  the  teacher  is  concerned  not  merely 
witli  emotions  and  feelings,  not  merely  with  intellectual  ac- 
quirements— thougli  l)oih  of  these  are  essential  and  ought 
to  be  secured — but  with  the  functioning  or  application  of  the 
principles  of  each  Lesson,  which  are  stirring  the  heart  and 
quickening  the  intellect,  to  practical  present-day  living.  This 
is  what  is  meant  by  the  oft-quoted  statement  that  "The  Dis- 
covery of  the  Child  marks  the  Xew  Movement  in  Education." 

What  "the  Child"   Means. 

The  Child  is  a  bundle  of  Possibilities.  Two  elements  are 
concerned  in  his  making — the  one  is  Heredity  and  the  other 
is  Environment.  "Heredity"  means  his  inherited  constitu- 
tion and  tendencies.  His  inheritance  from  his  forefathers 
influences  his  body,  his  face,  his  nature,  his  modes  of  action ; 
influences  his  brain,  his  ways  of  thinking,  his  likes  aud  dis- 
likes; influences  his  nerves  and  his  temperament. 

"Environment"  means  his  surroundings,  everylbiiig  thai 
goes  to  make  up  such  surroundings;  his  homo,  his  parents, 
his  school  life,  his  reading  life,  the  country  in  wliicli  he  lives, 
the  climate,  everything  he  sees,  and  feels,  and  hears,  and 
tastes,  and  touches,  and  smells.  There  is  not  a  single  impres- 
sion received  from  without  that  does  not,  in  some  way  or 
other,  influence  him.  or  tend  to  alter  his  character. 

Until  recently  it  was  thought  that  Heredity  was  far  more 
powerful  than  Environment;  that  Heredity  was  so  powerful 
that  a  child  was  horn  to  good  or  evil  in  his  life.  To-day  all 
classes   of    students.    Clergy,    Physicians,    Social    Eeformers, 


TllK  lIllLU  IX  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  5 

Settlement  Workers,  etc.,  st<anil  shoulder  to  shoulder  in  the 
belief  that  Environment,  or  Education,  is  the  more  import- 
ant; that,  no  matter  how  bad  the  Heredit}'  may  be,  there  is 
every  opportunity  for  the  up-building  of  a  good  character, 
provided  the  Enviromneut  be  elevating  and  positive.  Much 
that  was  hitherto  attributed  to  inheritance  is  now,  by  common 
agreement,  seen  on  examination  to  be  due  to  one's  surround- 
ings. The  child  is  essentially  a  creature  of  imitation.  Ho 
is  a  "chip  off  the  old  block"  merely  because  he  has  been  with 
the  ''old  block''  so  long,  has  seen  him,  and  imitated  him. 
and  therefore  shows  the  father's  characteristics,  obtained, 
not  so  much  by  inheritance,  as  by  Environment.  "It  lies 
not  in  our  stars,  but  in  ourselves,  whether  we  shall  end 
life  with  diadems  upon  our  heads,  or  fagots  in  our  hands, 
whether  we  shall  choose  the  kingdom  and  stars,  rather  than 
herbs  and  apples."  Heredity  is  important,  and  should  never 
be  disregarded;  but  Heredity  neither  condemns  nor  makes 
a  man. 

To  the  teacher  belongs  the  responsibility  for  character 
building  and  character  determines  destiny.  The  teacher  in 
the  Public  School  and  in  the  Sunday  School,  alike,  is  con- 
cerned with  the  child's  whole  life,  not  merely  the  part  of  it 
with  which  she  comes  in  contact  in  the  fulfilment  of  her 
official  duties.  If  the  principles  taught  in  Public  School  and 
Sunday  School  are  not  lived  during  the  hours  outside,  then 
Public  School  and  Sunday  School,  alike,  fail  in  their  primary 
purpose  and  object.  The  lessons  learned  must  be  lived — 
lived  in  the  home,  lived  on  the  play-ground,  lived  among 
companions  on  the  street,  lived  in  society.  If  they  are  not 
lived,  they  are  not  learned ;  and  the  secret  of  the  jSTew  Educa- 
tion, both  secular  and  religious,  lies  hidden  in  this  practical 
end.  As  we  shall  state  more  fully  in  a  subsequent  Chapter, 
the  teacher  who  undertakes  this  course  should  constantly  bear 
in  mind  that  every  lesson  must  function  or  result  in  doing, 


6  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

ill  living,  in  application,  not  in  some  far-off  day,  but  in  this 
present  everyday  existence. 

That  is  to  say,  one's  education  is  the  opening  of  his 
powers,  the  unfolding  of  his  life,  the  development  of  him- 
self. The  germ  lies  in  Heredity,  and  Heredity  functions  his 
innate  self -activity,  under  which  he  possesses  the  tendency 
to  respond,  by  an  expression  to  every  incoming  impression, 
that  may  be  received  througli  any  of  his  senses.  That  is  Life. 
Life  means  the  power  to  respond  to  impressions  from  with- 
out. This  power  to  respond  to  impressions  from  without 
makes  the  self-active,  self-directing  being.  What  a  child  in- 
herits are  not  compelling  instincts,  but  potential  faculties. 
These  may  respond  to  one  impression  in  one  way,  and  to 
another  impression  in  another  way.  It  depends  upon  the 
teacher  what  impression  shall  be  presented  to  the  instinct. 
If  a  good  impression  be  given,  good  action  and,  therefore, 
good  character,  results.  If  a  bad  impression  be  given,  evil 
consequences  ensue.  No  child  is  born  vicious  or  virtuous. 
It  is  only  by  his  own  action,  and  by  the  impressions  tliat  are 
given  him  in  his  Environment,  that  he  can  become  the  one 
or  tlie  other.  He  is  not  even  predisposed  towards  virtue  or 
vice.  But  the  germ  of  his  action  lies  in  Heredity.  The  out- 
ward Environment  only  elicits  or  restrains,  stimulates  or 
represses  what  is  already  present.  It  can  add  nothing  that 
is  new. 

Impressions  of   Early  Environment. 

It  was  a  Prelate  of  the  Roman  Cliurch  wlio  once  said 
"give  me  the  child  and  you  can  have  tlie  man."  It  does  not 
matter  much  what  we  do  with  the  grown-up  man.  Few  new 
habits  and  alterations  in  character  occur  after  tlie  age  of 
twenty-one,  and  some  educators,  such  as  Dr.  Alford  A.  Butler, 
go  as  far  as  to  say  that  the  years  before  the  age  of  ten  count 
more  than  all  the  succeeding  years  in  life.     Early  impressions 


THE  CHILD  IN  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  7 

last,  and  the  strength  of  those  impressions  is  seen  by  the  fact 
that,  as  old  age  falls  upon  us,  our  memories  go  back,  not  to 
the  intervening  years,  but  to  tlic  carl}^  days  of  childhood, 
where  never  failing  and  never  fading  impressions  are  lying 
dormant,  but  existing. 

And  the  reason  for  this  is  clearly  seen.  Both  President 
Butler  and  Professor  Hill  have  pointed  out  the  significance 
of  Infancy.  Infancy  spells  plasticity,  moldability,  power  to 
be  educated,  the  opportunity  to  change  habits,  to  make  a 
new  character  to  be  influenced  by  Ideals.  And  man,  of  all 
the  animals,  is  the  most  educatable,  because  he  has  the  most 
prolonged  infancy.  The  colt  can  stand  when  a  few  hours 
old.  At  the  age  of  three  years,  it  can  do  all  that  it  is  ever 
capable  of  doing;  but  no  living  creature  is  more  ignorant, 
more  defenceless,  more  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  others  than 
the  human  being.  First,  he  is  a  creature  of  instinct,  then 
rapidly  one  of  imitation,  and  impulse,  and  finally  of  habit 
and  permanent  action.  "Character  is  a  bundle  of  habits," 
and  only  as  we  form  those  habits,  one  by  one,  do  we  form 
character.  The  man  is  of  good  character  who  has  more  good 
habits  than  he  has  bad  ones,  and  vice  versa.  The  man  who 
has  done  an  action  once,  twice,  or  a  thousand  times,  has 
formed  a  habit,  strong  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  times 
he  has  done  that  action  in  that  way,  and  "the  aim  of  Educa- 
tion is  to  build  up  a  character  efficient  for  the  best."  This 
applies  to  all  education.  It  is  character  building,  that  is, 
habit-forming. 

The  Psychology  of  the  Child. 

The  Xew  Psychology  is  the  outcome  of  the  past  fifteen 
years  of  experiment  and  research.  It  is  the  reaction  from 
the  Old  Psychology  (which  was  what  we  might  term  Divi- 
sional Psychology,  somewhat  similar  to  Phrenology),  to  a 
unifying  and  unitary  idea  of  the  brain  working  as  a  whole. 


8  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  ClIir.D   STUDY 

N'ot  all  animals  have  brains^  but  all  life  has  some  kind  of 
intelligence ;  and,  in  the  higher  forms  of  life,  this  intelligence 
is  centered  in  a  nervous  system.  While  probably  every  cell 
of  a  body,  whether  of  a  man,  or  a  butterfly,  or  a  tree,  has  its 
self-activity  and  power,  yet  in  the  forms  of  life  that  rise 
above  the  single  celled  animal,  we  find  the  cells  working  in 
unison,  dominated  by  a  single  self,  acting  towards  a  definite 
end,  accomplishing  certain  results  in  the  Environment  in 
which  the  living  organism  is  placed.  The  probability  is  that 
some  kind  of  intelligence,  blind  though  it  may  be  in  its 
origin,  goes  down  through  the  entire  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms;  and  it  may  even  be  that  the  future  will  show  its 
presence  in  the  mineral  world. 

All  Education  and  all  training  come  by  action  upon  tliis 
central  system  of  intelligence,  embodied  in  a  nervous  system. 
All  life  is  more  or  less  inter-related.  If  we  accept  the  present 
theory  of  Evolution — that  all  intelligent  men  do  accept — we 
shall  find  that  the  child  represents  the  history  of  the  human 
race.  It  has  in  its  early  stages  a  good  deal  of  the  animal 
about  it.  Every  child  has  over  130  rudimentary  organs 
which  are  atrophied  and  are  disappearing,  as  the  need  for 
them  has  passed  away.  As  wc  pass  up  the  range  of  animal 
life,  each  child  represents  in  his  history  every  stage  of  animal 
life  as  developed  since  the  world  began.  We  are  in  turn  the 
invertebrate,  the  proto-vertebrato,  the  metazoan,  the  verte- 
brate, the  quadro-mammal,  the  bi-mammal,  and,  finally,  the 
man.  This,  of  course,  shows  Heredity,  but  it  shows  even 
more:  Heredity  influenced  thus  widely  by  Environment. 
And  the  Child  represents  iMan  in  liis  lowest  stages,  to  be 
"evoluted"  by  education  and  Environment  into  a  higher  type 
still,  a  man  of  noble  character. 
The  Nervous  System. 

It  would  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  secure  and  read  very 
carefully  either  Talks  to  Teachers,  by  Professor  James,  or 


THE  CHILD  JN  THP]  SUNDAY  SCHOOL 


Professor  James'  Briefer  Course,  or,  probably  better  still, 
the  illustrated  chapters  on  Psychology  found  in  Eeligious 
Education,  by  Dr.  W.  W.  Smith. 

Space  will  not  permit  us  to  give  the  fullest  details  here, 
and  yet  they  are  needed  by  one  who  would  fully  comprehend 
the  rationale  of  teaching.  The  Brain  and  Spinal  Cord  to- 
gether form  one  completely  unified  nervous  system.  That 
nervous  system  is  the  center  of  intelligence,  the  center  in 
which  all  impressions,  all  knowledge,  all  education  from  with- 
out are  received,  and  from  this  center  emanates  all  action,  all 
fining,  and  consequently  all  character.     The  brain  is  merely 

part  of  the  spinal  cord 
doubled  in  upon  itself. 
The  spinal  cord  runs 
in  the  vertebrae,  or 
haek-lione,  and  sends 
out,  Ijct^veen  the  ver- 
tebrae, thousands  of 
branching  nerve  fibres. 
Every  individual  cell  in 
the  body  is  connected 
with  the  brain  by  nerve 
fibres,  at  least  one  set 
running  to  the  cell  from  the  spinal  cord  and  brain,  and  tbe 
other  set  running  from  the  cell  to  the  spinal  cord  and  brain ; 
that  is,  the  one  efferent  and  the  other  afferent. 

The  spinal  cord  is  composed  of  nerves,  nerve  cells,  and 
nerve  fibres.  The  nerve  cells  have  dark  cell  bodies,  with  a 
black  nucleus  (see  picture  No.  1)  ;  the  nerve  fibres  are  whitish 
so  that  when  we  see  groups  of  cells  and  nerve  fibres  placed 
in  position,  the  cross  section  of  the  spinal  cord  (see  picture 
No.  2),  would  give  the  appearance  of  gray  matter  and  white 
matter — the  gray  matter  due  to  the  cell  bodies  and  nuclei, 
and  the  white  matter  due  to  the  fibres.     The  nucleus  of  a 


Cut  No.  1.    A  Nerve  Cell.     (KolUJcer.) 


10 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 


N  /f 

|V_  ROOT 

-%^3  BUNOLK 

■''^ 

'[.'m 

^ 

'(/■Jl  cm5s.tr<\ 

■"(f-ir^ 

YRAMlOf  I.  \ 

■U-r----\ 

;'sNTERO-;i 

'LATERAL  ;\ 

■-.'-.cr.Nom&l 

J»^-  \  :  1 

.,f~  -u 

Cut  No.  2.     Scctionn  of  the  lgi>iiiul  Cord.      (A.  E.  Schajcr.) 


THE  CHILD  IN  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL 


11 


cell  seems  to  be  the  life  of  the  cell.  It  might  correspond  to  n 
cell  brain.  Every  kind  of  a  cell  lias  a  nucleus — the  three 
kinds  of  muscle  cells,  kidney  cells,  liver  cells,  spleen  cells, 
lung  cells,  the  various  kinds  of  gland  cells,  and  hundreds  of 
others,  all  definitely  shaped,  but  all  with  nuclei,  which  appear 
darker  than  the  renuiinder  of  the  cell. 


Cut  No.  4.     Cerebrum  from  tiide. 
(Vail    Oehuchten.) 


Cut    No.    3.      Cerebrum    from 
Above.     (Van  Oehuchten.) 


The  brain  (pictures  Nos.  3  and  -1)  is  shaped  somewhat  like 
an  English  walnut,  with  deep  convolutions  and  ridges,  and  a 
central  fissure,  or  cleft,  along  the  middle  line.  The  convolu- 
tions give  folds  to  the  brain.  Along  the  outer  edge  is  the 
gray  matter,  and  in  the  interior  of  the  brain  is  the  white 
matter,  so-called.  The  gray  matter  is  gray  because  of  the 
grouping  of  cell  bodies  and  nuclei,  all  ranged  in  rows  along 
the  surface.  Some  idea  of  how  they  are  arranged  is  seen  in 
the  following  diagram.  (Picture  No.  5.)  The  fibres  of 
every  nerve  cell  connect  with  the  fibres  of  all  other  nerve 
cells,  so  that  an  impression  reaching  any  individual  nerve 
can  make  connections  with   any  other  nerve  in  the  entire 


12 


THE  ELEMENTS  t)F  CHILD  STUDY 


body,  and  especially  any  nerve  cell  in  the  brain.  This  inter- 
lacing and  inter-weaving  of  nerve  cell  connections  in  the 
brain  is  shown  very  nicely  in  the  following  diagram. 
(Pictnre  No.  G.)  From  the  center  of  the  brain  these  group- 
ings of  nerve  fibres  accumulate,  and  run 
down  in  great  neiTC  trunks  through  the 
spinal  cord,  forming  ascending  and  de- 
scending telephone  wires,  through  which 
the  nerve  currents,  or  impressions  from 
without  or  within,  can  run  only  in  the 
one  direction.  (Picture  No.  7.)  The 
cross  section  of  a  nerve  trunk  shows 
these  bundles  of  isolated  fibres,  corre- 
sponding very  closely  to  the  buried  sub- 
way telephone  and  telegraph  wires  in 
the  streets  of  our  large  cities. 

Owing  to  the  many  convolutions  and 
dippings  in  the  brain  surface,  a  much 
larger  area  is  given  for  the  grouping  of 
nerve  cell  bodies  in  the  gray  matter. 
AMiile  the  weight  of  the  entire  brain  is 
only  about  one-forty-sccond  of  the  weight 
of  the  whole  body,  it  lias  been  found 
that  the  supply  of  blood  is  one-eighth 
of  that  used  by  the  body.  This  free 
Cut  No.  5.  Supply  of  blood  determines  our  powers 

The  Layers  of  the  Cortical ^f  thinking  and  consciousness. 

Gray  Matter  of  the  Cere-  '^ 

irum.    (Meynert.)  It  has  been   settled  by  experiment 

that  the  weight  of  the  brain  of  educated  persons  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  uneducated.  The  weight  of  the  brain  in- 
creases in  gradual  progression.  The  use  of  alcohol,  tobacco 
and  other  stimulants,  hinders  cerebral  development  and  men- 
tal power. 


THE  CHILD  IX  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL 


13 


CrT  No.  6.     Biagram  SJtoic'uifj  Neurone  Connections.      (Smith.) 


EPINAI.   BAKGVTOM 


.POsrehioR  root. 


Cut   No.    7. 
Diagram  Stwtcing  Ascending  and  Descending  Columns.     {A.  E.  Schafer.) 


14  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

The  Complexity  of  the  Human   Body. 

This  nervous  system  controls  the  entire  human  body. 
How  complicated  and  varied  this  process  is  may  be  gathered 
from  the  statement  that  there  are  not  less  than  240  bones; 
446  muscles;  14,000  indentations  or  attachments  of  those 
muscles  to  the  bones;  not  less  than  10,000  nerves,  with  an 
equal  number  of  veins  and  arteries;  1000  ligaments;  4000 
lacteals  and  lymphatics;  1000  glands,  and  not  less  than 
200,000,000  of  pores.  Every  one  of  these  several  kinds  of 
aggregations  of  tissue  cells  is  composed  of  from  thousands 
to  tens  of  thousands  of  individual  cell  bodies,  each  with  its 
nucleus,  and  each  with  its  tiny  filaments  of  nerves,  connect- 
ing it  to  the  brain,  receiving  impressions  from  the  brain,  and 
sending  impressions  to  that  organ. 

The  nerve  cells  are  practically  infinite  in  number,  each 
individual  nerve  fibre  being  a  Neuron ;  each  Neuron  composed 
of  a  branching  nerve  cell  with  a  nucleus  and  dendrites,  or 
roots,  an  axis,  cylinder  or  nerve  proper,  and  the  cell  ending 
at  the  outward  termination.  Even  if  we  knew  the  exact 
arrangement  of  each  neuron  in  a  man's  brain,  it  would  take 
a  model  as  large  as  a  Cathedral  to  make  them  visible  to  the 
naked  eye.  Dr.  Thorndike's  last  figures  are  that  the  nerves, 
as  estimated,  number  3,000,000,000  of  neurons.  Each  of 
these  is  in  itself  a  complex  organ,  and  is  capable  of  many 
connections.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  tlie  brain  is  com- 
plicated enougli  to  register  the  most  complex  human  experi- 
ence. 

It  is  only  through  these  nerves  that  we  evolve,  that  we 
learn,  that  we  act;  in  a  word,  that  we  live  and  know  life. 
It  is  oneself,  the  ego,  the  mind,  the  man  who  uses  our  brains. 
We  are  not  brains,  and  it  is  not  the  brain,properly  speaking, 
that  does  the  work.  It  is  the  man  behind  the  brain.  This 
point  is  most  important  in  the  process  of  education.  It 
would  be  well  for  teachers  who  desire  to  pursue  this  interest- 


THE  CHILD  rX  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL 


15 


ing  study  further  to  read  Brain  and  Personality,  by  Pro- 
fessor William  H.  Thompson,  and  the  Chapter  in  Religious 
Education,  above  referred  to. 

The  Brain's   Relation  to  the   Nerve  Centers. 

While  the  brain  is  in  control  as  chief  over  the  entire 
nervous  system,  little  centers,  or  relay  stations,  are  provided 

along  the  spinal  cord,  so  that 
"Reflex  Actions"  may  take 
place  involuntarily,  and  even 
without  consciousness.  These 
Centers  are  little  brains,  as  it 
were,  presiding  over  special 
functions,  such  for  example  as 
tlie  Centers  devoted  to  the 
breathing,  to  the  action  of  tlie 
heart,  to  the  acts  of  IS'aturc. 

We  have  any  one  of  three 
diiferent  processes,  possible  as 
the  result  of  an  impression. 
(1)  An  impression  may  come 
from  along  a  nerve  to  the 
spinal  cord,  and,  uncon- 
sciousl}',  the  expressions  go 
out  along  another  nerve  fibre, 
resulting  in  action.  (2)  An 
Cut  No.  8.    (Smith.)  impression  is  received,  acted 

upon  by  involvmtary  reflex,  and  then,  afterward,  the  action 
telei)honed  to  the  brain,  as  shown  by  the  diagram  No.  8.  The 
action  proceeded  from  the  spinal  cord,  but  the  knowledge  of  it 
went  to  the  cerebrum.  (3)  An  impression  is  received  from 
without,  telephoned  through  the  spinal  cord  to  the  brain 
under  a  deliberate  fiat  of  the  will,  so  that  through  the  efferent 
nerves  an  expression  results.     We  call  these  three  kinds  of 


IG 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 


actions,  Simple  Eeflex,  Involuntary,  and  Voluntary.    (Picture 

Ko.  8.) 

The  Cerebrum  and  the  Cerebellum. 

The  brain  consists  of  two  large  hemispheres  (together 
called  the  Cerebrum),  of  the  Cerebellum,  or  little  brain 
or  hind  brain  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  and  of  the  Brain 
Stem,  known  as  the  Pons  Varolii  and  Medulla  Oblongata. 
The  use  of  the  Cerebellum  is  supposed  to  be  control  over 
the  equilibrium  of  the  body.  The  Cerebrum  is  the  Intel- 
lectual Center,  and  certain  definite  functions  are  localized 
on  the  surface,  or  Cortex,  of  the  Cerebrum.  This  has  been 
proved  by  study  and  experiment.  There  is  a  consensus  of 
opinion  that  the  thin,  gray  rind  of  the  Cortex  is  definitely 
specialized. 

Two  facts  have  been  proved :  the  higher  the  animal 
stands  in  the  grade  of  intelligence,  the  more  numerous  are 


("UT     Xu.     !•.  (it     A.I.      1(1. 

LocaUsutioii  of  Cerebral  Finutions.      (ScJiarfvr  and  llursJcy.) 

the  folds  and  convolutions  of  the  Cortex,  or  surface  of  the 
brain  (there  are,  however,  a  few  exceptions)  ;  and  the  cere- 
bral functions  have  been  definitely  localized  along  certain 
portions  of  the  Cortex.  There  are  Sensory  and  Motor  Xerves, 
that  is,  those  that  minister  to  Sensation,  and  those  that 
minister  to  Motion.     Some  of  the  efferent  nerves  are  motor, 


THE  CIIIIJ)  IX  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  17 

aud  some  arc  not.  Some  of  the  motor  nerves  are  voluntary, 
and  some  are  involuntar}^  Moreover,  each  motor  nerve  is 
connected  with  some  particular  muscle,  not  with  muscles  in 
general;  and  precisely  as  motor  nerves  are  each  of  them 
connected  with  some  particular  muscles,  so  they  have  their 
origin  in  different  parts  of  the  brain. 

Two  diagrams  of  the  localization  of  these  motor  func- 
tions are-sho\^'n  (Pictures  ISTos.  9  and  10),  the  one  showing 
the  localization  on  the  interior  surface  of  the  cerebrum,  and 
the  other  along  the  middle  line,  as  the  surface  dips  down  into 
the  hemispheres.  Thus  the  intelligent  movement  of  the  body 
muscles,  from  the  head  to  the  legs,  originates  in  definite 
spots  on  the  surface  of  the  brain. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  is  the  purpose  of  this  Course  of  study? 

2.  Contrast  the  Old  Education  with  the  New. 

3.  Discuss   the   Relative   Influences   of   Hereditj^    and   Environment 

•on  Character. 

4.  Explain  "Every  Lesson  must  Function  in  Doing  To-day." 

5.  Explain  and  Discuss  "Heredity." 

6.  How  is  "Character  a  Bundle  of  Habits"? 

7.  How  does  the  New  differ  from  the  Old  Psychology? 

8.  Describe  the  Nervous  System. 

9.  Why  is  its  study  important  in  Sunday  School  teaching? 

10.  Picture  the  complexity  of  the  human  body. 

11.  What  three  kinds  of  Nerve  Action  may  follow  Impressions? 

12.  What  do  we  mean  by  "Localization  of  Functions"  in  the  brain? 


SVJJ.AIJUS    OF   CHAPTER   11. 
HOW   WE  THINK   AND    LEARN 
SUGGEiSTED  KEADlNCi: — Talks  to  Teachers,  Professor  James. 

SUMMARY. 

Thinking  is  like  an  ever-flowing  "Stream  of  Consciousness,"  in  which 
are  Straws  in  the  Focvis  and  in  the  Margin,  rehxted  by — 1.  Con- 
tiguity, or  2.  Similarity,  or  both. 
Two  Laws:      1.  Present  Thoughts  have  been  caused  by  those  passed. 

2.  Coming  Thoughts  influence  present  ones. 
There  are  thus  Masses  or  Constellations  of  Ideas. 
/-   1.  We  know  our  Thouglits. 
!     2.  States  of  Thought  are  always  changing. 
In  Consciousness  J     .3.  Consciousness  is  continuous. 

I     4.  Consciousness   is   selective   in   Attention   given 
1  or  Thouglits  chosen. 

Ideas  may  be  Images  or  Concepts:    Particular  or  General. 
Education  is  the  Acquiring  of  a  Stock  of  Ideas,  and  Relating  Them. 
Ideas  can  enter  mind  only  in  certain  order.     Mind's  door  is  closed  to 

their  entree  out  of  order  and  time. 
Illustration  of  Concept  of  Apple,  of  Orange,  of  Rubber  IJull,  acquired 

by  Association  of  Ideas. 
Apperception  is  grafting  New  Ideas    (Knowledge)    to  Old:     Relating 

Ideas  into  Classes:    Introducing  the  New  to  the  Old. 
We  realize  an  Idea  by  paying  Attention  to  it. 
Attending  to  an  Idea  helps  it  to  result  in  Action. 
Thus   speaking  of  an   Idea   increases   its   I'resentative   Activitj',   and 
helps  it  to  Realize  Itself. 

r  1.  Sense  Perception,  almost  subconscious 

„,,     „j.  r  mi  ■    1  •  I   2.  Understanding   (Analvsis). 

Ihe  Stages  of  Thinking  are   J  ,      .        ,  .      ,     .     '     ,  q      .,      •   > 

"  °  ]   .3.   Heilection   (Analysis  and  Synthesis). 

1^4.   PhiI()so])hic  Insight. 


HOW  \\E  THINK  AND  LEARN  19 

Attention  is — 1.  Involuntary,  or  2.  Voluntary. 

No  Education  without  Attention.     No  Memory,  no  Will,  no  Action, 

no  Character  without  Attention. 
A  Native  Variation  in  Attention-Power. 
Cannot  secure  Attention  by  Demand.    It  is  not  given  to  Uninteresting 

things.     Thus  object  must  change,  give  new  Ideas,  present  new 

Sides,  to  gain  and  hold  Attention. 
Voluntary   Attention    comes    in    Beats.      It    cannot    be    continuously 

sustained. 
Will  and  Permanent  Interest  are  necessary  to  hold  Attention. 


CHAPTER  11. 

HOW   WE   THINK   AND    LEARN 


Stream  of  Consciousness. 

Professor  James^,  the  originator  of  the  most  striking  ex- 
ample that  Ave  have  to  explain  mental  workings,  likens  think- 
ing to  snccessive  sets,  or  waves,  of  feeling,  of  knowledge,  of 
desire,  of  deliberation  constantly  passing   ( Pictnre  No.  11), 

^^fe<*.■vvl       of      C  o-n'ic  »  o  u.<=»"nc  *«. 


Ci;t  No.  11. 


(Smith.) 


and  repassing  in  the  mind.  On  the  surface  of  the  stream 
float  sticks  and  straws.  Sometimes  one  idea  is  prominent, 
sometimes  another.  No  one  idea  stands  alone.  The  thought 
is   always   conii)]ex.      Sensations   of   our    body,   memories   of 


HOW  WE  THINK  AND  LEARN  21 

distance,  feelings,  desires,  all  grow  into  one  general  thought 
of  the  moment.     One  can  stand  on  the  shore  and  fix  the  eye 


e  ^ 


fb«^M'5>        a^\c\       N\aV<J^» 


■\1 

Cut  Xu.   12.      (t^mith.) 


upon  a  particular  stick,  as  it  floats  along.  That  represents 
the  thought  in  the  Focus,  or  Centre,  of  Attention.  (Picture 
No.  13.) 

So  in  the  ever-flowing  stream,  the  most  striking  thought 
is  the  brightest  in  the  centre,  while  the  others  are  grouped 
around  it  in  the  fading  margin;  other  sticks,  as  it  were, 
further  down  or  up  the  stream.  This  Margin,  or  Fringe, 
which  is  faint  at  first  and  haz}^,  is  liable  at  an}^  moment  to 
be  seized  on  by  our  attention,  and  brought  into  the  centre. 
Giving  attention  to  any  subject  is  bringing  it  into  the  focus 
of  our  attention,  and  holding  it  there. 

Two  great  laws  can  be  illustrated  by  this  idea :  ( 1 )  The 
thoughts  that  are  present  in  this  ever-flowing  stream  have 
been  conditioned  by  the  thoughts  that  have  gone.  This 
seems  easy  to  understand.  One  can  trace  back,  step  by  step, 
each  thought  from  the  present  one,  and  see  how  each  in  turn 
has  been  caused  by,  and  is  dependent  upon,  its  predecessor. 
(2)  But  the  second  law   is  harder  to  understand  at  first. 


22  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

It  is  that  the  thoughts  that  are  coming  have  been  inflnenccd 
by  the  thoughts  that  are  here. 

"Wliat !"  you  may  ask,  "do  you  mean  to  say  that  thoughts 
yet  unborn  are  influenced  by  the  thoughts  I  am  now  think- 
ing?" Yes,  in  a  way,  because  it  is  not  so  much  the  single 
thouglit  that  comes  to  us  as  a  group  of  ideas.  It  is  a  state 
of  mind  rather  than  an  idea.  Why  it  is  that  we  can  say, 
starting  from  the  same  word,  "Father,  who  art  in  Heaven," 
or  "Father,  what'er  of  earthly  bliss  Thy  sovereign  will 
denies?"  Why  is  not  the  word  "Father"  followed  by  the 
same  sequence  of  words  in  every  instance?  It  is  like  the 
constellation  of  the  Great  Dipper,  where  the  stars  are  always 
in  the  same  relation  to  each  other,  or  like  the  mast  of  a  ship, 
which  is  visible  before  the  hull  comes  into  view.  So  thoughts 
are  below  the  threshold  of  consciousness,  with  a  small  portion 
of  the  group  of  ideas  appearing  gradually  into  the  conscious- 
ness. 

As  Professor  Adams  puts  it:  "Other  ideas,  weak  in  them- 
selves, owe  their  recall  to  the  influence  of  their  friends. 
The  masses  of  ideas  of  which  we  have  already  spoken  come 
iiito  consciousness,  or  arc  driven  from  it,  in  a  body.  If,  for 
any  reason,  one  idea  belonging  to  a  mass  finds  its  way  into 
consciousness,  it  forthwith  drags  in  a  whole  mass  along  with 
it.  This  is  known  as  'mediate  recall,'  because  certain  ideas 
are  recalled  by  means  of,  or  through  the  mediation  of  other 
ideas.  If  in  Sunday  School  we  use  the  words  'Saint  Peter,' 
we  find  that  the  whole  mass  of  ideas  connected  with  Saint 
Peter's  life  and  character  swarms  into  the  consciousness  of 
the  older  pupils.  These  ideas  are  raised  by  mediate  recall, 
the  words  'Saint  Peter'  being  the  means."  James  gives  four 
characters  to  this  consciousness:  (1)  Every  "state"  tends  to 
i)C  part  of  personal  consciousness.  We  know  that  the  thought 
is  oiir  thought,  and  know  ourselves  as  thinking  it.  (2)  Within 
each  ))ersonal  consciousness,  states  arc  always  clianging.     No 


HOW  WE  THINK  AND  LEARN  23 

state  once  gone  can  be  recalled,  and  be  identical  with  wliat  it 
was  before.  It  may  concern  itself  about  the  same  object,  or 
the  same  quality,  or  the  same  species,  but  it  is  not  the  same 
state.  It  does  not  occur  in  the  brain  precisely  as  it  was  before. 
To  be  an  identical  sensation,  it  would  have  to  occur  again 
in  an  unmodified  brain,  which  is  a  physical  impossibility. 
(3)  Each  i^ersonal  consciousness  is  successive,  continuous. 
There  is  no  break,  or  breach,  or  interruption.  There  is  no 
time  when  we  are  not  thinking,  even  though  we  are  asleep, 
and  seemingly  dreamless.  The  stream  of  consciousness,  at 
any  rate  in  the  sub-conscious  self,  is  continuously  going  on, 
and  all  times  in  our  lives  we  are  conscious  that  the  stream  of 
our  life-thought  has  been  continuous.  (4)  The  stream  of 
consciousness  is  always  interested  more  in  one  part  of  its 
object  than  in  another,  and  welcomes,  or  rejects,  or  chooses, 
all  the  while  it  thinks.  The  phenomena  of  selected  attention 
and  deliberation  are  seen.  Accentuation  and  emphasis  are 
noted  in  every  impression  we  have.  We  find  it  impossil)le 
to  dispense  our  attention  impartially  over  a  number  of  im- 
pressions. 
Acquiring   New   ideas. 

Not  all  images  or  ideas  that  come  into  the  mind  need 
be  dated.  They  may  be  mere  pictures  of  an  object,  or  of  a 
class  or  type  of  objects.  If  the  object  be  the  picture  of  an 
individual  thing,  it  is  called  a  product  of  the  Imagination. 
If  it  be  a  type,  or  class,  we  say  it  belongs  to  a  conception, 
or  is  a  Concept.  We  may  call  both  Ideas.  Such  would  be 
a  general  statement,  which  is  in  fact  a  rule  or  law  expressed 
in  ordinary  language.  Thus,  "a  square  has  four  sides,"  is 
a  general  statement  that  is  always  true,  while  to  the  statement 
"thieves  are  rich,"  there  are  many  exceptions.  So  some 
general  statements  are  more  universally  true  than  others,  yet 
so  valuable  are  general  statements  that  it  is  no  unfair  test 
of  one's  intellect  to  note  the  proportion  between  particular 


2-4  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

and  general  statements  in  conversation.  Intelligent  people 
are  never  contented  until  they  can  converse  in  general  terms, 
stating  general  rules,  and  examining  their  truth. 

Our  Education  or  Life  Experience — that  is,  our  Environ- 
ment— fills  the  mind  with  a  vast  army  of  ideas,  and,  in  one 
sense,  Education  is  but  the  grouping  of  useful  ideas  into 
classes  and  types;  and  the  lack  of  Education  is  having  failed 
to  have  acquired  and  grouped  such  ideas. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  a  certain  definite  order  is 
pursued  by  nature  in  the  way  our  minds  group  these  ideas. 
Our  minds  are  closed,  as  a  rule,  to  the  entree  of  certain  ideas 
before  a  certain  age.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important 
statements  for  every  teacher  to  realize;  for  false,  crude,  fan- 
tastic ideas  are  conveyed  by  too  early  and  injudicious  teach- 
ing. Forcing  a  child  is  dangerous,  not  merely  to  the  health, 
but  to  the  mind  as  well. 

^Yllen  Ideas  come  into  the  mind  they  are  associated.  We 
will  see  this  under  the  illustration  of  the  apple  in  Apper- 
ception. The  stream  of  consciousness  is  ever  flowing  on,  and 
every  wave  in  it  is,  in  some  way  or  other,  determined  by  the 
character  of  the  waves  just  passed;  and  it,  itself,  influences 
the  waves  that  follow.  These  ideas  seem  to  be  selected  accord- 
ing to  (1)  Similarity  and  Analogy,  where  the  mind  calls 
upon  an  idea  in  the  stream,  because  there  is  some  likeness, 
or  repetition,  or  analogy  in  it  to  something  in  the  thought 
just  passing.  We  flow  along,  rapidly  passing  from  thouglit 
to  thought;  so  that  we  can  frequently  trace  back  clear  con- 
nection between  our  ideas.  (2)  Contiguity,  where  tlie  mind 
tells  us  that  the  objects  thought  of  in  a  particular  state 
were  next  to  the  object  recalled  from  a  previous  experience. 
The  Alphabet  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  are  familiar  examples, 
cited  here  by  James.  We  thus  build  up  useful  systems  of 
association  by  the  orderly  acquisition  of  new  ideas,  and 
re-adjustment  of  thoughts  already  acquired. 


HOW  WE  THINK  AND  LEARN 


25 


As  an  illustration  of  thinking,  let  us  make  a  diagram  of 
a  small  cross  section  of  the  brain,  and  let  each  dot  stand  for 
one  element  in  an  idea.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  small  child 
has  already  become  acquainted  with  a  large  gray  rubber  ball. 
We  now  introduce  him  to  a  small  red  apple.  The  thing  that 
strikes  his  eye  first  is  the  color,  then  the  shape;  and,  as  he 
relates  the  new  to  the  old  (and  nothing  can  be  known  save 


Cut  ^'o.  13.     (Sviitli.) 

by  comparisons  with  former  knowledge),  he  says  that  this 
is  a  red,  rubber  ball.  The  size  does  not  bother  him,  because 
he  merely  thinks  it  is  a  small  red  rubber  ball.  Lines  of  asso- 
ciation— telephone  wires,  as  it  were — are  set  up  between  cells 
containing  the  ideas  of  the  redness  and  roundness  of  the 
apple,   and  the  cells  containing  the  ideas  of  grayness  and 


2G  THE  ELE.MENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

roundness  of  the  rubber  ball.  Each  cell  is  connected  with 
every  other  cell,  and  so  he  proceeds  to  add  to  his  knowledge 
the  slight  difference  in  shape  between  the  apple  and  tlic  rubber 
ball,  as  in  the  stem  and  lower  end  of  the  apple;  the  new 
knowledge  given  in  the  smell,  as  compared  with  the  smell 
of  the  rubber  ball ;  the  smoothness  of  the  rubljcr  ball,  as  com- 
pared with  the  stickiness  of  the  apple;  the  incompressibility 
of  the  apple  as  compared  with  the  compressibility  of  the  rub- 
ber ball,  and,  finally,  the  taste  of  the  one  as  compared  with 
the  taste  of  the  other.  Comiiaring  the  two,  he  first  sees  the 
resemblances  (synthesizes),  then  he  sees  the  difi:erences 
(analyzes),  and  finally  learns  by  this  comparison  that  an 
a])ple  is  different  from  a  rubber  ball.  In  the  same  way  he 
miglit  learn  about  an  orange,  and  compare  that  again  with 
tlie  apple  and  the  rubber  ball.  All  knowledge,  therefore, 
comes  from  grafting  the  unknown  to  the  known. 

Apperception   Explained. 

This  is  rather  a  hard  name  for  a  simple  thing.  It  is 
merely  the  process  through  which  knowledge  is  introduced  into 
the  mind,  by  connecting  it  with  that  already  there.  An  im- 
pression no  sooner  enters  our  consciousness  than  it  is  drafted 
off  in  various  directions,  making  associations  with  former 
knowledge  and  impressions  already  there.  If  I  mention  the 
word  "Apple,"  it  will  recall  to  your  mind  the  taste,  appear- 
ance, and  form,  either  of  all  apples  in  general,  or  of  some  par- 
ticular apple  that  you  remember.  You  can  only  understand 
what  I  mean  by  tbe  term  "Apple''  by  having  this  previous 
knowledge.  If  you  have  never  experienced  an  apple,  I  can 
only  make  myself  understood  by  comparing  the  apple  to  some 
fruit  about  which  you  have  known.  This  process  of  joining 
the  new  to  the  old  is  called  Apperception.  It  is  really  the 
point  of  |)roceeding  from  llic  known  lo  ihe  unknown. 


HOW  WE  Tlll^'lv  AND  LEAllN  27 

In  later  life,  the  tendency  to  leave  the  old  impressions 
nndisturbed  by  new  ideas  leads  to  what  we  call  "Old  Fogy- 
isni,"  or  Conservatism.  (The  chapter  in  James'  book,  deal- 
ing with  this  subject,  is  most  delightful  reading.)  We  might 
illustrate  Apperception  by  saying  that  a  new  idea  corresponds 
to  a  new  person  coming  into  a  room,  unacquainted  with  anyone 
there.  Step  by  step,  he  is  introduced  to  this  one,  and  to  the 
next,  and  to  the  third,  until  he  has  met  everyone.  When  he 
is  fully  introduced  to  every  one,  he  is  known  to  every  one. 
He  is  the  new  idea  received  by,  amalgamated  with,  the  old 
ideas  already  present.  This  process  of  Apperception  is  thus 
the  association  of  ideas. 

Realizing  an   Idea. 

As  Professor  Adams  says :  "We  may  be  said  to  realize  an 
idea  when  we  give  it  our  full  attention,  and  let  it  develop  its 
full  meaning,  and  exercise  its  full  force  upon  us.  Some  ideas 
realize  themselves  within  the  mind  itself;  they  exhaust  them- 
selves by  becoming  distinct  and  vivid;  they  require  nothing 
further.  If  we  have  a  clear  and  vivid  idea  of  red,  for  ex- 
ample, we  are  satisfied,  we  ask  no  more;  the  idea  leads  to 
nothing  beyond  itself.  But  if  the  idea  of  an  action  becomes 
vivid  in  the  mind,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  that  idea  to 
pass  over  into  action.  If  we  think  earnestly  about  a  certain 
action,  we  find  ourselves  impelled  to  perform  that  action. 
If  you  make  a  clear  picture  in  your  mind  of  yourself  per- 
forming some  action,  you  will  find  that,  the  longer  you 
dwell  on  this  picture,  the  stronger  becomes  your  inclination 
to  perform  the  action;  and  if  you  retain  the  picture  long 
enough,  the  inclination  becomes  practically  irresistible.  This 
fact  explains  whatever  is  genuine  in  those  parlor  tricks  gener- 
ally known  as  thought  reading. 

"To  the  teacher  the  moral  ai)i)lication  is  ol)vious.  Temp- 
tation reallv  consists  in  the  effort  of  an  idea  to  realize  itself. 


•2S  THK   KLK.MKXTS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

J  f  the  idea  is  evil,  then  the  temptation  is  to  do  evil ;  but  the 
teacher  ought  to  remember  that  the  same  force  may  be  used 
towards  good.  We  may  be  tempted  to  good,  as  well  as  to 
evil.  The  teacher's  fight  must  be  to  put  good  ideas  into  the 
mind,  and  keep  them  there ;  he  must  be  concerned  more  with 
good  ideas  than  with  evil  ones.  The  moment  the  teacher 
speaks  of  an  evil  idea,  he  increases  its  presentative  activity, 
and  thus,  to  some  extent,  aids  it  to  realize  itself.  We  must 
fight  evil  indirectly  by  supplying  ideas  of  good.  This  is  the 
teaching  of  St.  Paul  when  he  says,  "^All  uncleanness,  or  covet- 
ousness,  let  it  not  be  once  named  among  you.'  We  must 
nurture  the  mind  with  ideas  of  good,  and  starve  it  in  respect 
of  ideas  of  evil." 

Definite  Stages  of  Tliinking. 

When  sensations  come  into  the  mind  through  perception, 
they  go  through  the  several  processes  of  Attention,  Analysis, 
and  Association.  We  can  represent  this  process  by  the  four 
divisions  of  thought:  (1)  Sense  Perception.  This  is  the 
first  stage  of  thinking,  and  cannot  properly  be  called  ^'think- 
ing" ;  for,  though  our  minds  are  acting,  it  concerns  sensations 
practically  sub-conscious,  and  never  entered  into  real  con- 
sciousness. When,  however  late,  the  small  child  realizes  its 
sensations,  it  at  first  does  not  combine  them.  Each  sensation 
stands  alone  and  unrelated.  (2)  Understanding  analyzes  and 
combines  sensations  (Synthesis),  and  secures  Perceptions. 
Thus,  I  see  a  pear.  Its  weight  and  smoothness  reach  my 
mind  through  the  touch;  its  size,  color,  etc.,  enter  my  mind 
through  the  avenue  of  the  eye:  and  its  taste  through  the 
mouth;  and  so  I  receive  my  idea  of  a  pear  as  one  of  the 
fruits  by  a  combination  of  the  multitude  of  single  sensations. 
We  gather  the  general  idea  with  each  kind  of  sensations 
acting  from  a  particular  point.  Thus,  no  reader  sees  all 
(■he  words  on  the  page,  nor  more  than  one-half  of  the  letters 


HOW  WE  THINK  AND  LEARN  29 

in  these  words.  (3)  The  next  stage  of  thought  is  Reflection, 
combining  Anal3'^sis  and  Synthesis.  It  reaches  principles  and 
laws.  It  is  the  clearing-up  time,  the  AufM'drung  of  the  Ger- 
mans. It  asks,  ''How?"  and  "Why?"  (4)  The  highest  stage 
of  reason  is  Philosophic  Insight,  which  sees  the  cause  of  all 
things,  namely,  God.  It  sees  the  world  as  explained  by  the 
principle  of  Absolute  Person.  Reflection  does  not  begin  much 
before  adolesence,  that  is  twelve  or  thirteen,  while  Philo- 
sophic Insight  is  seen  about  seventeen  or  eighteen. 

What  "Paying  Attention"  is. 

Attention  is  fixing  the  mind  upon  a  particular  idea,  bring- 
ing that  idea  or  thought  into  the  centre  or  focus  of  the  mind, 
and  then  persistently  holding  it  there.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  attention:  (a)  Involuntary,  and  (b)  Voluntary;  or  Atten- 
tion that  is  spontaneous  and  without  efEort,  and  that  with 
effort;  the  one  passive,  the  other  active.  The  attention  with 
effort  is  the  process  of  fixing  the  mind,  with  deliberation, 
on  objects  uninteresting,  or  less  interesting  in  themselves. 
Voluntary  attention  cannot  be  continuously  sustained.  It 
comes  in  beats,  and  each  beat,  each  effort,  expends  itself  in 
the  single  act,  and  must  be  renewed  by  a  deliberate  pulling 
of  our  minds  back  again.  Interest  is  the  outcome  of  Atten- 
tion. It  is  the  Self-Activity  of  our  Impulses  seeking  to  find 
satisfactory  outlet  for  their  desires  and  yearnings. 

Attention  is  the  basis  of  all  education.  Without  attention 
there  is  no  perception  of  what  takes  place  in  the  world  with- 
out. AVithout  attention  there  is  no  Memory.  We  would  live 
in  a  region  of  forgetfulness,  our  past  swallowed  up  in  oblivion. 
Without  attention  there  would  be  no  action;  for  Willing  is 
merely  paying  attention  until  we  bring  ourselves  to  act 
steadily  and  persistently  upon  an  idea,  which  we  hold  in 
vision.  The  chief  difference  between  an  educated  and  un- 
educated man  is  the  capacity  of  the  former  for  close,  contin- 


;^o  THE  ele:\ients  of  child  study 

nous,  concentrated  attention.  Even  jSTewton  tliouglit  that  the 
main  difference  between  himself  and  ordinary  men  consisted 
in  his  greater  power  of  attention. 

Types  of  Attention. 

Tliere  is  a  native  difference  or  variation  among  individuals 
in  the  concentrativeness  of  their  attention;  in  other  words, 
in  the  intensity  and  scope  of  their  field  of  consciousness.  It 
is  unlikely,  thinks  James,  that  those  who  lack  it  can  gain  it 
to  any  extent.  It  is  probably  a  fixed  characteristic.  Both 
mind-wandering  and  the  rapt  attention  classes  are  typos  that 
remain.  However,  it  is  the  total  mental  condition  that 
counts  in  life,  not  one  side  of  it. 

How  Not  to  Gain  Attention  in  the  Sunday  School. 

We  cannot  secure  Attention  by  simply  demanding  it. 
This  results  in  seeming  attention,  but  real  mind- wandering 
and  inattention.  Claiming  it,  demanding  it,  entreating  it, 
will  be  useless.  Nothing  can  keep  the  child's  attention  fixed, 
save  interest  in  the  subject.  It  will  not  be  obtained  by  ap- 
peals, or  a  loud  voice,  by  stamping,  by  clanging  of  a  bell. 
Attention  will  not  attach  itself  to  uninteresting  things,  and 
so  soon  as  the  lesson,  or  the  method  oC  its  delivery,  becomes 
uninteresting  and  monotonous,  the  mind  of  the  child  is  bound 
to  wander.  Therefore,  the  subject  must  be  made  to  change 
its  asjiect,  to  show  new  sides,  new  and  interesting  phases. 
From  an  unchanging  subject  the  mind,  even  of  an  adult, 
must  wander.  Either  the  stimulus  must  vary,  or  some  new 
attribute  discovered  in  the  subject. 

The   Law  of  Voluntary   Attention. 

Of  course,  spontaneous  or  involuntary  attention  does  not 
have  to  be  elicited.  It  is  present  naturally  and  of  itself, 
Rut  most  of  life  and  most  of  learning  depend  upon  voluntary 

or  (l('lil)erale  attention,  that  is,  aitonlion  wilh  an  elTort  of  Ihe 


HOW  WE  THINK  AND  LEARN  31 

will.  The  great  law  of  voluntary  attention  is  that  it  cannot 
be  continuously  sustained.  Our  minds  wander,  and  we  have 
to  bring  back  our  attention  every  now  and  then  by  using  a 
distinct  effort  of  the  will.  This  holds  the  topic  in  view  for 
a  moment,  then  the  mind  wanders  off  for  a  certain  number 
of  seconds,  or  minutes,  on  some  other  diverging,  spontaneous 
interest.  Then  the  process  of  deliberate  recall  must  be  re- 
peated. 

The  sustained  attention  of  the  genius,  sticking  to  his  sub- 
ject for  hours,  is,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  passive  sort. 
Such  a  man  is  full  of  original  and  copious  associations,  which 
lead  the  attention  along  from  one  thing  to  another  in  an 
interested  manner.  Unless  the  subject,  to  which  you  wish 
3'Our  pupils  to  attend,  really  reaches  their  vital  interest,  you 
will  be  able  to  hold  them  only  for  a  few  brief  minutes.  To 
keep  them  where  you  would  woo  them,  you  must  make  the 
subject  so  interesting  that  their  minds  will  not  wander.  The 
subject  must  be  one  that  concerns  their  present  lives,  and 
whose  utility  is  recognized  at  once. 

We  shall  see  Avhen  we  take  up  the  question  of  Will  in  a 
subsequent  Chapter,  how  closely  related  it  is  to  Attention, 
and  when  in  a  Chapter  on  Interest  we  deal  with  the  relation 
of  Interest  to  Attention,  we  will  again  show  in  another  way 
how  fundamental  is  the  study  of  tlie  Psychology  of  the  Child 
for  proper  teaching. 


32  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  E.xpLain  clearly  "the  Stream  of  Consciousness." 

2.  What  two  laws  hold  true  regarding  the  nature  of  Thinking? 

3.  Explain  the  Personality  of  Thought. 

4.  Compare  "a  Product  of  the  Imagination"'  and  "a  Concept." 

5.  Also  compare  "General"  and  "Particular"  Statements. 

6.  With  reference  to  Ideas,  what  is  Education? 

7.  What  are  the  laws  of  Contiguity  and  of  Similarity? 

8.  Reproduce  the  drawing  showing  the  Acquirement  of  Knowledge 

of  an  Apple,  and  explain. 

9.  What  is  "Realizing  an  Idea"? 

10.  What  effect  has  Thought  on  Action  ? 

11.  What,  then,  is  Temptation? 

12.  Name  and  explain  the  Four  Stages  of  Thinking. 

13.  How  do  Involuntary  and  Voluntary  Attention  differ? 

14.  How  can  we  not  gain  attention  in  the  Sunday  School  ? 

15.  State  the  law  of  Voluntary  Attention. 


SYLLABUS  OF   CHAPTER  III. 
EDUCATION   AND  CHARACTER 


SUGGESTED  READING : 

The  New  Psychology,  Professor  Gordyj  or 
Character  Building,  Coler. 

SUMMARY. 

Memory  is  not  a  Faculty,  but  an  Act  of  the  Mind,  by  which  it 
Retains  and  Reproduces  Impressions. 

Nothing  is  totally  forgotten.  Always  some  Impression  is  left  on  the 
mind. 

Memory  depends  on — 1.  Attention;  2.  Retention;  3.  Recall;  4.  Recog- 
nition;   5.  Localization. 

rp  rT.^-  (I-  Visual;  2.  Tactual  or  Motor;  3.  Mixed. 

Types  of  Memori  v    ,    _,,  .       '        ,  ^    ^n       -.-rr     , 

^^  \    I.  Thing  Workers;   2.  Idea  Workers. 

To  Train  Memory,  we  must  note  the  Kind  needed,  whether  Verbal 

(Memory  of  Words)   or  Things  and  Facts,  i.e.,  whether  Abstract 

or  Concrete. 
Will,  here,  stands  for  the  Act  that  cannot  be  Involuntarily  performed. 
All  Thought  tends  to  become  an  Act,  a  Willing,  the  Result  of  Choice 

and  Action  on  that  Choice,  through  Inhibitary  or  Motor  Nerves. 
Willing  is  the  End  of  All  Thinking. 
Will  can  be  Trained  and  Educated. 
Variations  in  Will  are  native  or  hereditary. 

Types  of  Will :    Such  are  Precipitate  or  Obstructed.    Races  differ,  too. 
Balky  Will  a  Balance,  or  Deadlock  of  Ideas. 
Watch  the  Tj'pe,  and  treat  each  Type  tactfully. 

So  have  Repression  by  Inhibition  or  by  Substitution.  Latter  better. 
Moral  Act  lies  in  Willing,  which  in  turn  lies  in  Deliberate  Attention. 
Deliberation  is  Weighing  Pros  and  Cons:    Paying  Attention  to  each 

side,  phase,  alternative.     Result  is  a  fiat. 
Instincts  are  Impulses,  Hereditary  Tendencies,   Potential  Capacities. 

They  equal  Heredity. 
Instincts  can  be  either — 1.  Developed;  2.  Altered;  3.  Repressed. 


34  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Habit  is  alwajs  an  Acquired  Reaction  on  an  Instinct. 

Education  therefore  is  a  Mass  of  Tendencies  to  Reaction:  a  Mass  of 
Ideas  Acting  on  Instincts. 

Man  lias  more  Instincts  than  Animals ;  but  guides  them  more  by 
Reason  and  Ideas. 

Instincts  are  Transitory;  Come  at  Definite  Times.  Live  or  Wane 
according  to  Use. 

Habits  are  Instincts  Trained  by  Use:  Re-actions  formed  by  Ex- 
perience. 

Aim  of  All  Education  is  Habit-formation,  that  is  Character-building. 

"No  Impression,"  even  sub-conscious,  "without  Expression." 

No  escape  from  Influences,  good  or  bad,  around  us. 


CHAPTER  III. 

EDUCATION  AND  CHARACTER 

Memory  and   Its  Value. 

It  would  be  of  no  value  to  leani  if  we  did  not  remember. 
All  the  impressions  that  might  come  crowding  to  the  brain 
through  the  sight;,  the  hearing,  the  smell,  the  taste,  the  feel- 
ings, would  be  as  nothing,  unless  we  stored  them  in  our 
memories,  and  were  able  to  recall  them  for  future  service. 
Memory  is  the  Act  of  Mind  by  which  it  retains  and  repro- 
duces these  impressions.  It  is  not  in  any  way  a  faculty.  It 
is  due  entirely  to  Attention.  As  Professor  James  put  it  in 
his  marvellous  book,  which  we  recommend  all  teachers  to 
read  (Talks  to  Teachers)  :  "Our  brains  are  wax  to  receive, 
and  marble  to  retain." 

Names,  dates,  and  what-not  leave  their  impressions  on  our 
brain  cells,  become  inter-related,  correlated,  welded  together, 
and  are  indelibly  retained.  Practically  nothing  is  totally  for- 
gotten. Professor  Ebbinghaus  has  proved  that  the  process  of 
forgetting  is  vastly  more  rapid  at  first  than  later.  No  matter 
how  long  ago  we  have  learned  a  poem,  and  no  matter  how 
complete  may  l)c  our  inability  to  reproduce  it  now,  the  first 
memorizing  will  still  show  its  lingering  effects  in  the  abridg- 
ment of  time  required  for  learning  it  over  again.  Things 
which  we  are  quite  unable  to  recall  definitely  have,  neverthe- 
less, impressed  themselves  in  some  way  upon  the  structure 
of  the  mind.    We  are  different  for  having  once  learned  them. 


3(5  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIirLD   .STIDV 

Our  conclusions  from  certain  premises  arc  probably  not  just 
what  they  would  be,  if  there  were  not  those  modifications  of 
the  brain  cells.  The  very  fact  that  when  we  ivlearn  we  recog- 
nize that  we  have  known  the  fact  before,  shows  that  it  has 
not  been  totally  forgotten. 

Memory  depends  upon  five  factors:  (1)  Attention,  which 
in  turn  depends  upon  (a)  our  Personal  Interest,  and  (b)  our 
Paying  Attention,  (2)  Betentioji,  (3)  Recoil,  (4)  Becognition 
and  (5)  Localization.  Any  one  of  these  may  fail,  although 
the  failure  in  most  cases  depends  upon  Eecall. 

A — ttention, 

K — etention, 

E — ecall, 

E — ecognition, 

L — ocalization. 
Definite  Attention  may  be  lacking  on  the  part  of  the 
learner,  and  the  memory,  Retention,  in  itself  may  be  weak; 
but  generally  the  trouble  has  been  that  we  have  not  thought 
enough  about  the  subject,  have  not  formed  enough  connect- 
ions, have  not  made  a  good  association  of  ideas,  have  not 
really  woven  the  unknown  to  the  known,  and  so  cannot  rapid- 
ly Recall.  Recognition  fails  in  a  few  cases,  though  rarely,  and 
when  it  does  it  is  generally  due  to  some  form  of  disease, 
known  as  Amnesia.  In  such  cases  a  person  may  see  a  knife 
and  not  recognize  it,  or  sec  a  word  and  not  know  it,  or  hear 
a  word  and  not  interpret  it;  or,  finally,  may  reproduce  and 
re-know  past  experiences,  but  without  the  power  to  Locate 
them.    They  are  all  in  the  past,  but  where  is  not  recalled. 

An  example  of  recalling: — Suppose  a  lady  went  to  a  re- 
ception held  in  ]\rrs.  Jones'  parlor.  (See  drawing  No.  14) 
Let  us  now  have  one  dot  to  represent  a  great  many  brain  cells. 
We  will  put  a  dot  (a)  for  Mrs.  Jones'  parlor — that  takes  in 
the  fittings  of  the  room,  the  floor,  the  tapestries,  the  furniture, 
aufl  people  in  general.    We  will  put  another  dot  (b)  to  repre- 


EDUCATION  AND  CHARACTER 


37 


sent  the  corner  of  the  room  where  the  piano  is,  and  where 
Mrs.  Smith  is  standing  as  a  guest.  Tlie  third  dot  (c)  will 
represent  Mrs.  Jones  in  lier  evening  attire^  introducing  Mrs. 
Smith  to  a  lad}^,  Mrs.  Brown.  AVe  will  put  four  dots  for 
particular  facts  concerning  Mrs.  Brown — (d)    for  her  face; 


Ini-*.     Stktxa   if        P^s'-y*^ 


e.   "»"»"»  °-  ~m    to  e.  V  i  "\t 


Cl-t  No.  14.      (fimith.) 


I 


(e)    for   her   high,   squeaky   voice;    (f)    for   her   name,   and 
(g)  for  her  evening  costume.      (See  Picture  N^o.  14). 

The  next  day  Mrs.  Smith  meets  Mrs.  Brown  on  the  street, 
and  is  greeted  effusively.  An  invitation  is  given  by  Mrs. 
Brown   for   Mrs.    Smith   to   call   on   her    "At   Home"   Day, 


.38  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  C'lllIJ)  STIDV 

Wednesday.  Mrs.  Smilli  cannot  recall  her  name.  There  is 
first  of  all  the  same  face  represented  by  (d).  There  is 
her  high,  squeaky  voice  (e),  but  a  different  costume,  (g), 
which,  of  course,  does  not  resemble  her  former  costume.  Her 
name  (f)  cannot  be  recalled.  Mrs.  Smith  meditates,  "Who 
is  she  ?  Where  did  I  meet  her  ?  Where  have  I  seen  that  face, 
and  heard  that  voice?"  And,  after  much  thinking,  as  they 
part,  slie  recalls  the  corner  of  the  room  (b),  where  the  piano 
stood,  and  Mrs.  Jones  (c),  introducing  her  to  some  lady  who 
had  a  high  voice  and  the  same  face.  Suddenly  Mrs.  Smith 
recalls  that  it  struck  her  at  the  time  that  the  names  were 
very  similar,  that  is,  they  were  all  common  names.  She 
thinks,  "My  name  is  Smith.  My  hostess'  name  was  Jones. 
Now  what  other  names  were  there — Robinson,  Brown,  Taylor, 
etc  ?    Oh,  I  have  it  now !    It  was  Brown." 

Thus  in  this  roundabout  way,  the  mind  went  from  the 
face  and  voice  (d)  and  (e),  to  tlie  name  (f),  whereas  it 
should  have  gone  directly  to  the  name,  and  would  have,  if  the 
Face,  Voice,  and  Name  had  been  thought  about,  paid-atten- 
tion-to,  and  properly  associated  at  the  introduction.  Tlius 
again  we  see  that  memory  depends  upon  th(>  ])roper  associa- 
iion  of  ideas. 

Types  of  Memory. 

There  are  different  types,  or  kinds,  of  Memory,  which 
depend  largely  on  inheritance,  although  somewhat  on  the 
training  of  the  Will.  Tlic  A^isual  Type  remembers  things  in 
terms  of  visual  images,  or  mental  pictures.  The  Aural  'l\pe 
sees  things  in  terms  of  hearing,  chiefly.  Tlie  Tactual  Type 
remembers  in  terms  of  touch.  The  IMixed  'JVpe  of  menuiry 
is  probably  the  most  common  of  all,  and  is  most  valuable. 

Professor  Thorndike  says  that  individual  intellects  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes  roughly;  those  al)le  to  work  with 
ideas,  and  those  able  to  work  wi(h   things.     Some  children 


EDICATTOX  AND  CHARACTER  30 

manage    numbers,    words,    symbols,    and    fail    in    measuring 
boards,  catcliing  fish,  or  l;il)oral(U'y  work. 

For  convenience  in  Sunday  School  teaching,  you  may 
divide  your  scholars  into  two  nuiin  types  and.  the  mixed  type : 
the  Visual  type,  the  IMotor  type,  and  the  Mixture  of  the  two. 

The  Will. 

Since  Character  is  Conduct,  and  Conduct  means  but  a 
series  of  habits  or  actions,  and  as  all  new  habits  are  primarily 
formed  by  AYilling,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  Will.  In 
the  narrow  sense  of  the  word.  Will  refers  to  such  acts  in  life, 
either  Muscular  or  Mental,  as  cannot  be  inattentively  per- 
formed— that  is,  require  a  delil)erate  fiat  on  the  part  of  the 
Mind,  in  order  to  be  executed. 

All  thought  tends  to  become  an  act;  all  attention  tends 
to  eventuate  in  Willing,  in  a  motor  re-action,  that  is.  It  may 
only  be  an  alteration  of  the  heart-beats,  or  a  blush,  or  a  sol), 
or  what-not. 

It  may  be  the  outcome  of  a  single  idea,  or  the  result  of 
weighing  a  number  of  ideas;  a  contest  or  battle  of  motives, 
the  result  of  deliberation.  This  deliberation  results  in  a 
choice,  a  fiat,  a  decision.  There  are  two  sorts  of  nerves:  (a) 
those  of  Inhibition  or  arrest,  that  stop  or  prevent  an  action; 
and  (b)  those  of  Motor  action,  that  perform.  The  contest, 
the  weighing,  is  the  balancing  of  ideas.  Hesitation  is  the 
deadlock  of  ideas.  It  may  result  in  action  through  Motor 
nerves,  or  refraining  from  action,  through  the  nerves  of 
Inhilntion.  The  nerves  are  very  delicate,  and  a  strong  idea 
in  the  focus  may  become  uttei'ly  neutralized  by  faint  con- 
tradictory ideas  coming  in  from  the  margin,  and  replacing 
the  focal  thought,  which,  if  retained,  would  have  resulted 
in  a  very  different  action.  Our  conduct,  then,  is  the  result 
of  the  comjiounding  of  our  impulsions  and  inhibitions. 


40  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Willing  is  the  consummate  end  of  all  tJiinl-ing  and  all 
feeling.  No  impression  evev  enters  the  body  that  does  not 
result  in  some  action;  "no  Impression  witliout  a  correspond- 
ing Expression"  is  the  universal  law  on  which  one  can  abso- 
lutely rely.  Yet  Will  is  not  a  thing.  You  cannot  put  your 
finger  on  it,  and  say,  "this  is  pure  will."  It  is  a  process  that 
occurs  as  the  result  of  the  Association  of  ideas,  guided  and 
controlled  by  self. 

Types  of  Will. 

There  are  definitely  inherited  types  of  Will,  just  as  there 
are  of  Attention.  That  is,  there  are  ways  of  thinking  that 
are  natural  to  a  certain  person,  which  thinking  and  delibera- 
tion and  resolve  may  be  slow  or  rapid,  may  be  logical  or 
illogical,  depending  upon  the  heredity  and  subsequent  train- 
ing. Will  can  be  trained  as  well  as  Attention  and  Memory 
can  be  trained,  and  it  is  our  part  as  teachers  to  train  the  will. 
In  fact,  the  major  portion  of  all  our  teaching  is  concerned 
with  definite  and  deliberate  Will  training.  When  we  have 
trained  Will,  we  have  made  Character. 

There  are  tivo  main  types  of  Will  (a)  Precipitate,  and 
(b)  Obstructed.  The  former  type  is  seen  in  the  maniac;  the 
latter  in  certain  melancholiacs,  where  perfect  "abulia,"  or 
inability  to  will  an  act,  is  present.  Eaces  differ  in  types  of 
Will.  The  Southern  races  are  impulsive;  the  Northern,  as 
the  English,  are  repressive.  Tlie  former  is  the  lower  type, 
for  it  has  few  scruples,  and  acts  regardless  of  consequences. 
'I'he  strongest  minds  will  weigh  consequences,  deliberate, 
consider  pros  and  coits.  The  Bailey  Will  is  the  extreme  of 
deadlock.  The  balance  of  ideas  refuses  to  be  broken.  The 
child,  or  tlie  horse,  cannot  act,  however  hard  he  tries.  The 
Will  refuses  to  break  the  deliberation.  So  long  as  the  in- 
hibiting macliinery  is  active,  the  child  finds  the  obstacle  insur- 
mountable and   im]iassable.     "Then  make  him   forget,   drop 


EDUCATION  AND  CHARACTER  41 

the  matter  for  a  time^  springing  it  suddenly  on  liini  later  in 
some  other  way,  before  lie  has  time  to  recognize  it,  and  likely 
as  not  he  can  act.  Don't  try  to  'break  his  Will'."  "Better 
break  his  neck  than  his  Will,"  says  James. 

Allowance  must  be  made  in  the  case  of  those  children 
whose  wills  verge  toward  the  extreme  impulsive  type,  or 
toward  the  extreme  pondering  type.  A  teacher  must  not  irri- 
tate the  former  Ijy  forever  checking  their  natural  tendencies 
to  jump  at  actions,  or  the  latter  by  hurrying  them  on  to 
what  seem  to  them  hasty  decisions.  Too  vigorous  opposition 
to  their  natural  lient  will  make  the  one  class  confused  and 
sulky,  and  the  other  nervous  and  tearful.  We  must  bring 
each  toward  the  golden  mean  of  action,  that  is  neither  rash 
nor  tardy  by  sympathetic  and  ingenious  treatment.  AVith  a 
pupil  of  the  impulsive  extreme,  get  him  to  agree  to  the  simple 
rule  that,  before  he  acts  in  any  important  situation,  he  is 
to  write  on  a  bit  of  paper  what  he  is  going  to  do,  and  why 
he  is  going  to  do  it. 

"AVhen  in  great  doubt,  do  either  or  both,"  is  a  maxim 
which  these  pondering  children  are  often  quite  willing  to 
follow,  and  which  soon  improves  greatly  the  power  of  prompt 
attention.  It  should  be  their  guide  in  all  unimportant  decis- 
ions, and  is  not  a  bad  rule  for  them  even  in  really  vital  ques- 
tions. 

Just  as  there  are  two  types  of  Will,  there  are  two  types 
of  Inhibition — that  by  repression,  and  that  by  substitution. 
The  latter  is  the  one  to  select.  Eeplace  the  deadlock  by  a  new 
inhibiting  idea — the  former  quickly  vanishes  from  the  field. 
Action  through  substitution  is  better  than  repression.  "He 
whose  life  is  based  on  the  word  'No,'  is  an  inferior  person 
in  every  respect  to  what  he  would  be  if  the  love  of  truth  and 
magnanimity  possessed  him  from  the  outset."  Build  up 
character  by  a  positive,  not  by  a  negative,  education. 


42  Till']   KI.K.MKXTS  OF  ClIIIJ)   STIDY 

Tlius  it  is  tliat  Jaiiics  i^ivcs  us  the  rule  tiial  "X'oluntary 
ac-lion  is,  at  all  times,  the  resultant  of  the  couipounding  of 
our  impulsions  with  our  inhibitions/'  The  matter  of  training 
the  will,  and  the  rubles  for  doing  so,  will  be  considered  by  us 
in  a  subsequent  chapter.  We  will  merely  say  here,  in  answer 
to  the  question:  ''Jii  what  does  a  moral  act  consist  when  re- 
duced to  its  simplest  and  most  elementary  form?"  that  the 
moral  act  consists  in  the  effort  of  attention  by  which  we  hold 
fast  an  idea,  which,  but  for  the  elTort  of  attention,  would  be 
driven  out  of  the  mind  by  tlie  other  psychological  tendencies 
that  are  there.  "To  think  is  the  secret  of  wdll,  just  as  it  is 
the  secret  of  memory."  This  is  the  happy  way  in  which  it 
is  expressed  by  James. 

The  Opposition  of  Knowing,  Feeling,  and  Willing. 

Like  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle,  no  two  are  on  the  top 
at  the  same  time.  'J'herefore  we  cannot  Know  intensely,  and 
Feel  intensely,  and  Will  intensely  at  the  same  moment.  If  the 
feelings  are  uppermost,  the  intellect  and  will  are  in  abeyance. 
Mob  rule  is  an  example  of  this.  If  the  intellect  is  upper- 
most, the  head  has  gained  control  of  the  feelings;  and  the 
I'motions  are  therefore  in  abeyance  and  the  result  is  cold 
intellectuality,  and  self-control.  When  we  ivill,  we  have  some 
emotion  and  some  intellect,  l)ut  the  willing  is  the  uppermost 
act.  That  is  why  we  call  an  angry  num  mad,  because  his 
knowing  powers  have  become  disarranged.  When  Carpenter 
was  lecturing  he  forgot  his  pain,  because  pain  is  a  feeling; 
and  when  he  was  lecturing,  he  was. exercising  his  intellect  very 
vigorously.  The  expression,  "wild  with  grief,"  illustrates  the 
same  law.  One  does  not  make  much  jii'ogi'ess  in  those  studies 
where  the  interest  is  so  liUle  that  we  have  to  put  forth  a 
great  deal  of  elTort  to  keep  our  minds  on  them.  The  will  is 
used  so  energetically  to  concentrate  the  atteuliou.  Ihat  there 
is  little  enei'gy  left  for  knowing.     So  that,  when  your  pupils 


KDlt'ATlOX  AS\)  CIIAILVCTKR  43 

are  amused  they  learn  little;  because  aniuseiiicut — a  feeling — 
is  a  hindrance  to  that  concentration  of  mind  that  is  study, 
()i-  knowing.  And  yet  tliere  is  a  certain  inter-dependence  l)e- 
tween  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing.  When  we  feel  we  know, 
and  when  we  know  we  feel.  Bodily  wishes  and  pains,  ail 
feelings,  in  fact,  depend  upon  knowing. 

Deliberation. 

"The  word  Deliberation  is  used  in  ordinary  speech  to 
mean  any  state  of  mind  in  which  some  to2)ic  is  considered 
attentively.  It  then  means  little  more  than  a  state  of  atten- 
tion. In  a  more  restricted  sense,  it  describes  a  state  of  readi- 
ness to  will,  with  mental  choice  between  one  or  more  possi- 
bilities of  action.  In  such  cases  the  state  of  mind  is  likely 
to  include  different,  and  more  or  less  opposed,  methods.  We 
think  over  the  alternatives,  have  ideas  favoring  this  or  the 
other,  and  balance  the  Pros  and  Cons.  From  the  inside,  it  is 
tlie  presence  of  images  and  pictures,  plus  emotions  of  doubt 
and  uncertainty.  From  the  outside,  it  is  a  state  of  hesitation 
before  action.  The  termination  of  this  hesitation,  or  conflict 
of  ideas,  is  sometimes  marked  by  a  feeling  of  decision  or 
choice.  We  must  not  confuse  the  fact  of  decision  with  the 
feeling  of  decision.  The  fact  of  decision  means  that  one 
motive  has  conquered,  that  one  idea  or  act  has  prevailed,  and 
it  may  have  little  or  no  feeling  of  choice  accompanying  it. 
The  term  fiat  of  the  will  is  applied  to  a  feeling  which  may  be 
analyzed  as  a  sort  of,  'Go  ahead,  let  the  act  occur.'  The  feel- 
ings concerned  in  the  life  of  conduct  are,  in  the  main,  made 
of  intellectual  and  emotional  stuff.  The  only  ends  which 
follow  immediately  upon  our  willing,  seem  to  be  movements 
of  our  own  bodies.  Whatever  feelings  and  havings  we  may 
will  to  get,  come  in  as  results  of  preliminary  movements, 
wliich  we  nuike  for  the  purpose.     The  only  direct  outward 


44  THE  EIJvMKXTS  OK   CHILI)  STUDY 

ell'ec't  of  our  will  arc   bodily  iiiovoiiieiits/'   unless   we  except 
Telepathy. 

Deliberation,   Reflection,   and   Willing. 

Let  us  make  a  diagrammatic  scheme  to  illustrate  this  pro- 
cess.   In  the  drawing  herewith,  let  us  suppose  that  the  reader 
^.  were  the  guest  of  a  lady  at  dinner.     ''.Fhe 

/'"  :  '*.  menu  has  proceeded  to  the  dessert  course, 

/'       ;       "^  and  a  tidy  waitress  enters  the  rooms  with 

-'•^         — '»; ^»_    a  tray  of  plates  containing  pieces  of  cohl 


Cut  No.   15.  mincC  JDic. 

It  chances  that  you  have  been  afflicted  with  chronic  dys- 
pepsia, and  that  the  physician  has  forbidden  your  eating  pie, 
and  especially  cold  mince  pie.  The  sensations  and  ideas 
entering  the  mind  having  nothing  to  do  with  the  argument 
under  which  you  decide  whether  or  not  to  eat  that  particular 
piece  of  mince  pie,  we  will  call  the  Indifferent  arguments,  and 
number  them  a'  b',  etc.,  in  the  drawing.  They  w^ould  be  such 
things  as  the  sight  of  the  waitress,  the  tray,  the  pattern  of 
the  plates,  the  fork  beside  you,  with  which  to  consume  the 
pie.  Your  first  impression,  then,  would  probably  be  a  feeling: 
''Oh,  here  comes  pie,  mince  pie,  just  what  I  love."  "The 
pie,  mince  pie,  just  what  I  love,"  would  correspond  to 
the  arguments  a,  b,  and  c  Tro,  that  is,  the  arguments  in 
behalf  of  the  act.  There  arise  at  once  opposition  arguments, 
that  we  will  call  a',  b",  and  c".  Tliey  would  be  sucli  as  "Yes, 
but  the  Doctor  said  I  mustn't  eat  pie,  and  especially  mince 
pie,  and  especially  cold  mince  pie." 

At  once  some  other  arguments  Vro  enter  your  mind,  so 
that  there  ensues  a  mental  dialogue  about  as  follows:  "But 
then  I  have  not  been  sick  in  tliree  months,  and  maybe  it 
won't  hurt  me.  Well,  but  when  I  was  sick,  I  was  sick  in  bed 
foi-  two  weeks,  and  I  had  the  doctor  every  day,  and  it  cost 
mc  $2  a  visit.     Oh !  but  this  is  such  a  small  piece  of  mince 


EinCATION  AND  CHARACTER  45 

pie,  and  tlieii  I  am  so  very  hungry.  I  was  leaving  space  for 
the  dessert,  and  you  know  I  cannot  be  hnpolite  to  my  hostess, 
and — and — and" — to  a  prolonged  extent.  "Yes,  but  when  I 
was  sick,  I  was  very,  very  sick,  and  I  suffered  so  terribly  that 
I  resolved  that  I  would  never  again  take  the  risk  of  eating 
mince  pie,  and  most  of  my  suffering  has  been  caused  by  mince 
pie." 

]\Ieanwhile  your  mental  and  visible  eyes  have  been  centered 
on  the  piece  of  pie.  Eemember  that  we  said  in  a  previous 
section  that  the  moment  one  looks  at,  or  pays  attention  to,  the 
idea  of  an  act,  there  is  a  tendency  for  that  act  to  realize 
itself.  Moreover,  the  situation  is  never  a  fair  one.  One  is 
always  prejudiced,  and  when  prejudiced  the  tendency  in- 
variably is,  even  when  one  strives  to  be  just,  to  minimize 
the  arguments  against  the  act,  and  magnify  the  arguments 
for  it.  In  fact,  you  can  put  it  down  as  a  rule  that,  if 
the  arguments  seem  equal  for  any  act  in  life,  the  thing 
that  you  should  do  is  what  you  do  not  want  to  do,  because 
of  the  almost  certainty  of  a  biased  view  of  the  arguments. 
So  that,  gazing  at  the  pie,  you  presently  remark  to  your- 
self, a  remark  that  really  constitutes  the  act  of  decision. 
'"Well,  anyhow,  my  digestive  organs  are  my  own,  and  it  is 
nobody's  business  if  I  do  suffer.  I  will  take  the  risk."  With 
that  final  remark,  and  perhaps  a  mental  toss  of  the  head,  you 
look  away  from  the  arguments  Con,  until  they  are  practi- 
cally obliterated  from  the  mind,  and  you  focus  your  attention 
on  the  strength  of  the  arguments  Pro,  with  the  inevitable 
result  that  down  goes  the  mince  pie  and  you  become  a  willing 
victim.     That  is  Willing. 

Instincts — Native  and   Acquired. 

Instincts,  or  Impulses,  or  Hereditary  Tendencies,  or 
Potential  Capacities,  or  Points  of  Reaction,  are  all  names  for 
practically  the  same  thing.     Instincts  include  Eeflexes,  and 


40  THE   ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

all  other  actions  or  tendencies  to  action;  that  is,  feelings  and 
acts  whicli  are  nnlearned,  and  are  in  ns  apart  from  all  train- 
ing and  experience,  are  instincts.  Thus  we  see  that  Character 
or  Conduct,  heing  a  hundle  of  habits,  and  habits  being  the 
result  of  either  (1)  developing  instincts  and  training  them, 
or  (2)  altering  them  by  substitution  of  other  actions,  or 
(3)  by  repressing  or  killing  them,  instincts  lie  at  the  bottom 
of  all  life.  Every  habit,  every  action,  or,  as  James  puts  it, 
"every  acquired  reaction,  as  a  rule,  is  either  a  complication 
grafted  on  the  native  reaction,  or  a  substitute  for  the  native 
reaction,  which  the  same  subject  originally  tended  to  provoke. 
The  teachers'  art  consists  in  bringing  about  the  substitution 
or  complication  of  reactions,"  impressions  from  without,  that 
is,  environment. 

Our  Education  implies,  therefore,  the  acquisition  of  a 
mass  of  tendencies  or  possibilities  of  reaction.  Every  action 
is  either  the  outcome  of  instinct,  or  acquired,  as  the  result 
of  training  or  experience.  Animals  arc  commonly  thought  of 
as  being  par  excellence  creatures  of  instinct.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  men  have  more  instincts,  manifold  more  and  moi'c  varied, 
than  do  animals.  Only  the  instincts  are  less  easily  recog- 
nized because  they  are  so  readily  trained  into  habits,  and  so 
influenced  by  intellect  and  reasoning.  It  would  be  well  to 
examine  carefully  the  long  list  of  instincts  and  their  uses, 
given  on  pages  94  and  102  of  Religious  Education.  We  shall 
speak  of  certain  of  these,  such  as  love,  animosity,  imitation, 
emulation,  consciousness  of  power,  ownership,  constructivc- 
ness,  etc.,  in  other  places  of  Ihis  book,  wbciv  we  treat  of  Ihe 
develo])ment  of  the  child. 

Transitoriness  of  Instincts. 

James  gives  us  the  law  of  the  transitoriness  of  instincts: 
"Many  instincts  ripen  at  a  certain  age,  and  then  fade  away. 
A  conse(|uence  of  this  law  is  that  if.  during  the  iimo  of  such 


EDUCATION  AND  CHARACTER  47 

an  instinct's  vivacity,  objects  adequate  to  arouse  it  are  met, 
a  hahit  of  acting  on  them  is  formed,  which  remains  wlien  the 
original  instinct  has  2)assed  away;  but  that  if  no  such  objects 
are  met  with,  then  no  habit  will  be  formed;  and,  later  on 
in  life,  when  the  animal  meets  the  objects,  he  will  altogether 
fail  to  react,  as  at  the  earlier  epoch  he  would  instinctively 
have  done.  ISTo  doubt  such  a  law  is  restricted.  Some  instincts 
are  far  less  transient  than  others — those  connected  with  feed- 
ing and  self-preservation  may  hardly  be  transient  at  all ;  and 
some,  after  fading  out  for  a  time,  recur  as  strong  as  ever; 
e.  g.,  the  instinct  -of  pairing  and  rearing  young.  To  detect 
the  moment  of  the  instinctive  readiness  for  the  subject  is, 
then,  the  first  duty  of  every  educator.  As  for  the  pupils,  it 
would  probably  lead  to  a  more  earnest  temper  on  the  part  of 
college  students  if  they  had  less  belief  in  their  unlimited 
future  intellectual  potentialities,  and  could  be  brought  to 
realize  that,  whatever  physics  and  political  economy  and 
philosophy  they  are  now  acquiring  are,  for  better  or  worse, 
the  physics  and  political  economy  and  philosophy  that  will 
have  to  serve  them  to  the  end." 

Habits. 

Tendencies  to  reaction  or  response,  which  are  formed  in 
whole  or  in  pai't  by  experience  or  training,  are  called  Habits. 
The  instincts  become  hal)its  as  soon  as  experience  focuses  or 
alters  them.  Practically,  all  of  human  behavior  is  a  series 
of  habits.  The  essential  nature  is  the  same,  whether  the 
habit  is  partially  formed  and  rarely  used,  or  fully  formed 
and  always  used.  Any  tendency  for  something  to  go  with 
something  else,  mental  or  physical,  is  either  a  case  of  pure 
instinct  or  habit.  Habits  not  in  action,  and  the  possibilities 
of  forming  hahits,  are  called  Poivers.  The  inborn  qualities 
which  are  the  partial  basis  for  the  development  of  mental 
powers,  as  it  were  instincts  of  possibility,  are  called  Capacities. 


48  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

The  ultimate  aim  of  Church,  Sunday  School,  Eeligion,  and 
Day  School,  is  really  Character,  or  habit-forming.  The  par- 
ticular point  of  view  by  Avhich  the  Church  differs  from  the 
world  is  to  set  as  the  ultimate  sanction  or  rule  for  good  con- 
duct, not  merely  society  or  our  fellow  men,  but  God;  and  to 
refer  the  basis  of  all  action  or  thought  to  the  moral  law  Avithin 
us,  expressing  God's  definite  will. 

Habit,  the  End  of  School  Work. 

Sow  a  thought  and  reap  a  doed, 
Sow  a  deed  and  reap  a  habit, 
Sow  a  habit  and  reap  a  character. 
Sow  a  character  and  reap  a  destiny. 

"I  wonder,"  queries  Professor  Seeley,  "liow  fully  the 
teacher  enters  into  the  thought  that  education  is  to  trans- 
form into  hal)it  whatever  ought  to  belong  to  our  nature?" 

The  Sub-Conscious   Field  of   Habit. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  fact  that  everything  experienced 
influences  us  at  some  time,  even  though  we  may  seemingly 
have  forgotten  the  experience,  or  fact.  AVe  said  that  some 
time  or  other  we  acted  differently,  as  the  result.  So  evil  im- 
pressions, long-forgotten  stories  with  impure  taint,  or  under- 
hand motive,  sneaky  actions  we  saw,  bad  examples  we  set, 
careless  words  or  acts  on  the  part  of  a  teacher,  at  the  time 
passed  over  lightly;  all,  and  every  one  of  these,  will  at  some 
future  time  influence  a  word,  a  deed,  or  at  least  a  thought. 
Truly  "no  man  liveth  unto  himself."  Every  boy  and  girl 
should  be  especially  shielded  from  harmful  words  and  sights, 
and  should  be  especially  subjected  to  pure  and  lofty,  noble 
and  idealistic  surroundings.  Many  a  boy  has  entered  the 
Sacred  Ministry,  or  labored  in  the  Missionary  Field,  as  tlic 
outcome  of  a  noble  teacher's  life  and  words;  and,  above  all, 
consistent  and  consecrated,  devoted  life.  It  was  the  Sunday 
School  teacher  of  the  present  authoi-  himself   who   was  the 


EDUCATION  AND  CHARACTER  49 

means  of  his  entering  God's  Avork  in  the  Church's  Ministry. 
Good  (not  "goody")  books,  early  read,  will  in  after  years 
almost  invariably  bear  sweet  fruition. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  is  Memory? 

2.  On  what  does  Memory  depend? 

3.  Explain  "Types  of  JNIeniory." 

4.  How  can  one  train  Memory? 

5.  What  is  Will? 

6.  What  is  the  tendency  of  all  Thinking? 

7.  What  are  the  Types  of  Will? 

8.  What  is  a  "Balky"  Will? 

9.  In  what  way  can  we  gain   repression  ? 

10.  What  is  Deliberation? 

11.  What  are  Instincts? 

12.  What  can  be  done  with  Instinct? 

13.  What  is  a  Habit? 

14.  What,  therefore,  is  Education  in  terms  of  Instinct? 

15.  What  is  said  of  the  Transitoriness  of  Instincts? 


SYlJ.Ar.US   OF  t'HAl'TJ<:i;    l\^ 

THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE   CHILD    IN    THE 
PRIMARY  AGE 

SUGGESTED  READING:— The  Mi>u  of  a  Child,  Ennis  Richmond. 

SUMMARY. 

L  Infancy — 1  year. 

2.  Kindergarten    or    Primary — I-G.      In- 
stinct and  Impulse. 
Divisions  of  Child  Growth  J   3.  Childhood — G-12.    Imitation  and  Habit. 
I   4.  Adolescence  or  Youth — 12-18.     Moral 
Crisis  and  Ideality  or  Romance. 
Later  Adolescence — 18-25.     Decision. 
Primary  Age. 

PlIYSrCAI,   ClIAUACTERISTICS. 

Restlessness.     Hence  use  Motion  throughout.     Proper  seating,  etc. 
Activity.     Hence  Constructive  Motion. 

Grosser  muscular  movements  develop  first. 

Activity  must — 1.  Act,  or  2.  Die,  or  3.  Explode.     Seek  Purposeful 
Action. 

Repression  brings — 1.  Irritability  and  Nervousness;  2.  Friction; 
3.  Unhappiness;  4.  Weakened  Character. 

Rightly  used  brings  Good  Habits,  i.e..  Character.  . 

Love  of  -Play.     Educational  Value  great. 

Symbolic,  Constructive,  Imaginative. 

Games,  Contests,  Competitions,  Dramatizations,  etc. 
Emulation.     Rivalry  of  a  Generous  Sort  only. 
Savagery.    We  reproduce  Race  History,  i.e..  Recapitulation.     So  show 

Diflferent   Interests    and    Nature    at    DifTerent   Ages.      Savagery 

brings  Credulity. 

Mental   Characteristics. 

Dependence.     Child   clinging  and  loving.      Avoid   Harshness.     Teach 
Inter-relation  of  Life. 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  PRIMARY  AGE        51 

Faith  and  Trust.  Especially  along  Religious,  Symbolic,  and  Mystical 
Lines.  Fetishes,  Anthropomorphism,  etc.  Credulity  passes 
about  tenth  year. 

Personification.  Very  powerful.  Nature  and  even  Toys  alive  to 
child.     Use  it. 

Self-Unconsciousness.    Seemingly  self-assertive.    Use  in  Recitation,  etc. 

Imitativeness.  Now  imitates  Parents.  Later  Companions.  In  Ado- 
lescence.    Imitates  Ideals. 

Curiosity.  Develop  Inquiring  Attitude.  Now  concerned  with  the 
Concrete  and  Material.  Is  the  chief  means  of  gaining  Facts  and 
Ideas.  Feed  it  well.  Kept  up,  it  means  the  Student  and  the 
Philosopher. 

Imagination.  Very  active.  Lives  in  the  world  of  jNIake-believe. 
Prefers  it.  Hmall  children  do  not  "lie."  Due  to  imperfect 
Imagination,  too  vivid  and  imperfect  Perceptions.  Educate  out 
of  Untruth  by  indicating  error  of  perceptions. 

Concreteness.  So  the  Story  Age,  the  Biography  Age,  and  the  History 
Age.  L'se  only  Stories  here.  A  Story  is  a  concrete,  detailed, 
picturesque  portrayal,  so  detailed  and  concrete  as  to  afford  an 
actual  mental  picture.  Few  or  no  relationships,  and  no  abstrac- 
tions. 

Conscience  does  not  appear  much  before  the  age  of  ten.  It  is  devel- 
oped, not  born  in  one:  and  must  be  read  through  Education. 
Obedience  is  best  taught  in  the  first  three  j'ears  of  life.  Distin- 
guish carefully  between  Penalty  and  Discipline.  Former  does 
not  develop  moral  character.  Sin  is  only  possible  under  a  moral 
personality,  obtained  through  human  environment,  i.e.,  Social 
vSuggestion. 

Memory  at  this  age  is  both  strong  and  weak:  strong,  because  Reten- 
tive; weak,  because  not  closely  Attentive.  Language  is  gained. 
first  in  nouns,  then  verbs,  pronouns,  adjectives,  adverbs,  etc.  It 
is  lost  in  i-everse  order. 

Sex-Unconsciousness  now.  So  Sexes  together  in  School:  From  S-12, 
are  sex-repellant,  so  we  separate.  From  12,  are  sex-attracted, 
so  still  separate  to  get  Attention  to  work. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD  IN  THE 
PRIMARY  AGE 

The  Steps  of  the  Child's  Development. 

AVe  liavc  seen  iliat  instincts^  motives,  iiiipidses,  desires, 
and  interests  of  the  child  liave  a  definite  method  and  process 
of  development.  They  unfold  and  ripen  at  well  recognized 
stages,  or  periods,  in  life.  Not  onl}-  is  his  bodily  growth  an 
orderly  progress,  but  his  mental  activity  as  well.  Both  of 
these  influence  and  determine  our  method,  and  our  curriculum. 
These  definite  stages,  or  steps,  reach  from  infancy  to  man- 
hood. The  lines  of  demarcation  arc  not  by  any  means  clear 
and  distinct  in  the  separation. 

These  divisions  are:  (1)  Infancy,  or  Babyhood,  the  suck- 
ling period,  only  to  the  first  year.  (2) Early  Childhood,  the 
Primary  Age,  from  one  to  six  years,  sonuHimes  called  the 
Kindergarten  Age.  These  two  stages  are  divided  by  Dr. 
Alford  Butler  into  the  Age  of  Instinct,  from  one  to  three, 
and  the  Age  of  Impulse,  from  three  to  six.  (3)  Childhood, 
from  six  to  twelve  years  of  age,  sometimes  divided  into  the 
Primary  School  Age,  from  six  to  eight  and  one-half  or  nine 
{i.e.,  Third  grade  Day  School)  and  Cbildliood,  from  then 
lill  Adolescence.  Di".  r>iill('r  again  iiinkcs  Iwo  divisions 
oC  this  period:  fi'oiii  six  lo  nine,  ilic  Age  of  Imita- 
lion,  iind  from  nine  to  twelve,  tlie  Age  of  llabil.  (I)  Youth 
or  Adolescence,  from  twelve  to  eighteen  or  nineteen  years  of 
age,  sometimes  divided  into  Early  Adolescence,  from  twelve 


])KVKLOPMENT  IN    THK  PIUMARY  AGE  53 

to  sixteen  (tlie  Ag'o  of  Moral  C/i'isis),  and  Middle  Adolescence, 
from  sixteen  to  nineteen,  the  Age  of  Koniance  and  Ideality. 
(5)  Later  Adolescence,  from  eighteen  to  twenty-five,  the  Age 
of  Decision.      (6)    Manhood,  from  twenty-five  years  onward. 

I. — The  Primary  Age,  One  to  Six  Years  Old.     1-3,  Age  of  Instinct; 
3-6,  Age  of  Impulse. 

1. — Physical  Ciiakacteristics. 

Restlessness. — The  small  child  can  keep  still  about  forty 
seconds;  the  teacher  probably  thinks  it  is  less  than  that. 
Therefore,  the  Kindergarten  School  will  provide  for  move- 
ment and  motion;  the  opening  and  closing  Hymns  will  be 
marching  songs;  the  Offertory  will  be  taken  to  a  marching 
collection  hymn;  Mbtion  hymns  will  be  used;  the  children 
\\'ilhbe  encouraged  to  come  forward  and  point  out  people  and 
objects  in  their  pictures,  on  the  sand  table,  or  the  blackboard. 
'J'iiere  will  be  constant  motion  every  few  ]uinutes  for  the  wee 
children.  The  effort  will  constantly  be  made  to  keep  the 
child's  hands,  or  feet,  or  tongue,  all  in  action.  Perhaps  the 
one  pervading  thought  in  the  matter  of  discipline  or  control 
will  be  the  self-activity  of  the  small  child. 

Of  course.  Kindergarten  chairs  should  be  used,  and  they 
should  be  of  the  right  shape  and  height.  A  great  mistake  is 
constant'ly  being  made  in  the  selection  of  such  chairs.  The 
Mosher  Hygienic  Chair,  with  slab  back  and  saddle  scat,  is 
good,  and  so  is  the  chair  with  the  straight  back  and  desk  ai'm, 
at  which  the  child  can  do  nurnual  work  in  picture  mounting, 
drawing,  sewing,  etc.  Kindergarten  taljles  should  also  be 
used  where  possible. 

Aclirifi/. — This  instinct  is  closely  akin  to  restlessness,  but 
it  is  also  different,  because  it  is  constructive.  One  can  have 
motion  just  for  motion's  sake,  but  Activity  is  positive  action. 

The  chihl  nuist  be  doing,  or  he  cannot  grow.  "Growth 
advances  from  the  more  general,   or   fundamental,  muscles. 


54  THE   EI.KMKXTS  OF   CHILD  STUDY 

to  tliose  tliat  are  set'ondarv,  or  accessory.  A  child  uses  its 
larger  muscles,  those  that  move  the  larger  joints  and  limbs, 
and  develops  them  before  it  trains  the  smaller  muscles  that 
move  the  smaller  joints.  A  child  can  run,  jump,  roll,  skip, 
kick,  strike,  lean,  push,  and  pull,  before  it  can  write,  sew, 
carve,  draw,  tie,  knit,  and  manipulate  a  musical  instrument 
skilfully,  march,  or  dance  gracefully."  "The  skilful  use  of 
the  hands  and  feet  is  acquired  after  the  general  and  untrained 
use  of  the  same  has  been  developed,"  says  Haslett. 

He  is  by  nature  rhythmical,  and  loves  music.  He  will 
move  his  body  constantly  in  response  to  the  music.  About 
the  third  3^ear  is  the  beginning  of  a  nascent  stage  for  singing. 
Music  may  well  consume  the  major  portion  of  the  instruction 
hour.  Pictures,  models,  blackboard,  sand  table,  action  exer- 
cises, and  stories,  may  occupy  the  remainder.  In  Harrison's 
Study  of  Child  Nature  it  says:  "Making  a  restless  child 
keep  still  is  a  repression  of  this  nervous  energy,  which  irri- 
tates the  whole  nervous  system,  causing  ill  temper,  morose- 
ness,  and  general  uncomfortableness.  If  this  force  could 
be  properly  expended,  the  child  would  be  always  sunny- 
tempered.  This  legitimate  and  natural  investigative  activity 
needs  only  to  be  led  from  the  negative  path  of  destruction 
into  the  positive  one  of  construction.  Instead  of  vainly  at- 
tempting to  suppress  the  new-born  power  of  the  young  pio- 
neer, or  searcher  after  truth,  guide  it  aright.  Give  him  play- 
things, which  can  be  taken  to  pieces  and  put  together  again 
without  injury  to  the  material.  The  positive  method  of 
training  builds  up  the  cheering,  optimistic  character  which  is 
so  much  needed.  Who  are  the  men  and  women  that  are  lift- 
ing the  world  upwards  and  onwards?  Are  they  not  those 
who  encourage  more  than  they  criticize?" 

The  baby's  world  is  "a  big,  booming,  buzzing  confusion," 
but  gradually  order  and  system  arise  out  of  chaos.  The 
mind,  clouded  at  first,  becomes  clear  and  active;  it  learns  to 


DEVELOPMENT  IX  THE  PRIMARY  AGE  55 

know  certain  objects  and  the  simplest  relationships  within 
a  very  limited  sphere.  The  law  of  activity  must  constantly 
be  remembered:  "Activity  must  act,  explode,  or  cease  to 
generate."  If  it  stops  acting  entireh^,  it  spells  death;  for 
the  body  without  activity  is  dead.  If  it  lessens  in  amount, 
it  brings  lowered  vitality,  and  indicates  some  abnormal  con- 
dition. Therefore,  you  must  choose  one  of  the  only  two 
alternatives  left,  either  purposeful  action  or  an  explosion; 
for  activity  can  no  more  be  confined  than  steam  in  a  boiler. 

When  the  policy  of  repression  has  been  followed,  certain 
definite  and  harmful  results  occur  under  such  refinement  of 
cruelty.  Saying  "Don't,"  or  "Be  still,"  and  enforcing  this 
mandate  by  strict  discipline,  may  bring  the  outward  repres- 
sion, but  results  in  (1)  irritability  and  nervousness;  (2)  fric- 
tion, with  probable  defiance  and  stubbornness  developed, 
which  may  last  all  through  life ;  ( 3 )  unhappiness,  and  a  sense 
of  alienation,  under  which  sympathy  is  lost  between  the 
teacher  and  the  child;  and  (4)  weakness  of  will  and  char- 
acter, which  is  the  most  serious  result  of  all.  If  activity  be 
directed,  proper  development,  both  of  body  and  of  mind  and 
of  character,  results.  ^Yliether  the  boy  become  a  gentleman 
or  a  rowdy  depends  upon  the  outlet  given  to  his  energy.  This 
energy  must  have  an  outlet,  and  it  is  the  teacher's  responsi- 
bility, and  not  the  boy's,  if  that  energy  be  not  guided  aright. 
Each  action  of  this  energy  traces  deeper  the  pathway  of  habit. 
Activity  rightly  guided  means  right  habits.  Activity  wrongly 
guided  means  wrong  habits.  It  means  a  lawless  and  undis- 
ciplined character,  while  activity,  rightly  guided,  means  the 
making  of  a  noble  character.  And  so  obedience  is  active,  not 
passive.     It  is  activity  under  law. 

But  with  this  activity  is  the  desire  for  change,  change 
of  posture,  or  of  method  of  recitation,  or  of  subject.  Dullness 
and  sameness  are  fatal  to  good  order.  Therefore  make  fre- 
quent alteration,  both  in  the  position  of  the  children,  and  in 


56  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

the  method  of  developing  the  lessons,  varying  from  the  rou- 
tine plan  occasionally,  and  especially  presenting  an  attractive 
programme  on  stomiy  and  dull  days;  and  in  the  subject,  or 
at  least  in  its  treatment  so  far  as  may  be. 

Love  of  Play — which  to  the  child  is  serious  and  earnest 
work.  The  educational  value  of  play  is  now  fully  recognized 
by  the  day  schools.  The  play  instinct  is  Nature's  way,  and 
so  God's  way  of  developing  body,  mind,  and  character.  And 
so  in  the  Sunday  School  and  the  Church,  the  play  element 
is  constantly  apparent.  Games,  contests,  competitions  can 
all  be  used.  Missionary  and  Bible  games  that  can  be  played 
in  the  home,  in  the  social  gathering,  in  the  club,  or  even  at 
odd  hours  in  the  Sunday  School,  now  exist  in  abundance. 
Dramatization,  or  theatrical  presentation,  of  Bible  scenes  and 
characters  has  been  developed  in  some  schools  with  good  suc- 
cess, and  a  number  of  books  outlining  such  dramas  and  mys- 
tery plays  have  been  published.  Tlie  play  element  can  per- 
vade the  entire  Kindergarten  and  Primary  School,  without 
detracting  at  all  from  the  religious  spirit.  The  opposition 
between  the  play  spirit  and  the  religious  is  thus  removed. 
We  teach  our  children  that  play  has  no  connection  with  re- 
ligion, and  then  we  wonder  why  religion  does  not  seem  more 
attractive  to  them,  as  they  grow  older. 

When  Emulation  is  used  as  an  instinct  in  conjunction 
with  the  play  element,  it  should  l)e  very  carefully  and  wisely 
planned.  The  impulse  to  imitate  another,  so  as  not  to  seem 
inferior,  was  developed  largely  by  the  Jesuits.  When  it  does 
not  engender  strife,  it  is  a  good  motive.  It  is  manifested  in 
rivahy,  in  group-work,  in  the  employment  of  incentives  as 
prizes,  honors,  awards,  etc.  The  tone  of  the  school  or  class 
is  kept  up  by  a  spirit  of  emulation,  the  pride  in  keeping  tra- 
ditions alive.  All  individual  improvement  results  from  the 
basal  instinct  of  rivalry. 


DKVKLOr.MKNT  IN  THE  PRIMARY  AGE        57 

SavcKjerij. — In  liis  lilV-liistorv,  tlic  cliild  repeals  the  his- 
tory of  tlie  liumau  race,  physical  and  psychological,  social 
and  religious.  This  is  known  as  the  Eecapitulation  Theory. 
It  is  explained  very  fully  in  The  Pedagogical  Bible  School 
by  Professor  Haslett  (pp.  318-225).  We  have  also  referred 
to  it  before  in  speaking  of  the  Evolution  of  the  Child  (p.  1). 

Little  children  are  savages.  They  manifest  such  untliink- 
ing  cruelty  at  times,  that  any  explanation  of  it  is  difhcult 
apart  from  the  theory  of  savage  characteristics  of  ancestors 
being  repeated  in  the  cliildren.  Instincts  are  inherited  hal)- 
its.  They  are  our  ancestors'  ways  of  acting,  handed  on  (o 
their  offspring.  They  are  individual  habits  that  have  become 
racial.  The  Culture  Epochs  Theory  attempts  to  determine 
what  those  interests  are,  the  time  of  their  natural  appearance, 
and  the  proper  food  for  their  nourishment.  Passing  through 
the  stages  of  racial  history  in  its  pre-human  development, 
the  child  ascends  from  savagery  to  civilization  in  a  broad  and 
general  way,  with,  of  course,  individual  variations.  This 
would  explain,  in  a  very  helpful  form,  many  of  the  seemingly 
crude  and  fantastic  croppings-up  of  savage  instincts  witli 
which  Ave  meet  in  the  younger  child.  They  are  instincts  to 
be  trained  and  repressed  to  a  degree,  not,  perhaps,  entirely, 
because  their  entire  repression  would  result  in  weakness  and 
cowardice;  but  trained  to  noble  expression  and  high  outlets. 

Children,  in  their  resemblance  to  savage  and  primitive 
man,  are  very  credulous,  and  open  to  all  kinds  of  suggestion. 
They  agree  to  everything.  Imagination  runs  riot  in  them, 
and  they  possess  a  maze  of  ideas  witliout  definite  phxn.  It 
is  for  us  to  guide  them  into  the  more  sober  world  of  reality, 
not  in  a  prosaic  manner  that  will  destroy  all  imagination  and 
symbolism,  but,  with  reverent  and  glowing  touch,  to  discern 
the  true  and  the  false  in  the  world  around. 


58  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

2. — Mental  Characteristics. 

Dependence  on  Others. — The  child  clings  to  its  mother 
and  teacher,  and  gladly  follows  every  suggestion  made  by 
either  of  them.  It  shows  affection  to  an  extreme  degree. 
All  coldness,  or  harshness,  will  at  once  drive  the  child  of  this 
period  away.  Only  a  person  of  very  low  moral  qualities  will 
deceive,  or  be  harsh,  with  a  child.  Well  has  Scripture  said: 
"Whosoever  oifendeth  one  of  these  little  ones  who  believe  in 
Me,  it  were  better  for  him  that  a  millstone  were  hanged 
about  his  neck,  and  that  he  were  drowned  in  the  midst  of  the 
sea." 

This  dependence  on  others  can  be  trained  into  a  realiza- 
tion of  the  inter-relation  of  all  life,  so  that,  while  on  the  one 
hand  the  child  is  taught  to  be  self-dependent  or  independent, 
he  will,  nevertheless,  realize  that  "no  man  liveth  to  himself," 
and  that,  therefore,  cordial  and  trustful  relations  should  be 
constantly  cultivated. 

Faith  and  Trust. — Ideal  faith  is  noticed  especially  along 
Religious,  Symbolic,  and  Mystical  lines.  The  child  has  its 
fetiches,  which  it  often  deifies  and  seems  to  worship.  The 
contents  of  a  small  child's  pockets  will  show  a  collection  of 
fetiches  closely  akin  to  the  age  of  savagery.  It  is  intensely 
anthropomorphic.  God  is  literally  to  him  an  old  "Man."  He 
knows  Jesus  Christ  as  a  person  with  a  body,  and  does  not 
realize  that  God  the  Father,  and  God  the  Holy  Ghost  are 
pure  spirit.  In  fact,  he  cannot  appreciate  what  a  spirit 
is.  A  great  many  adults  have  crude  ideas  of  God.  The 
mother  of  a  three-year-old  child  told  the  writer  that  she  had 
not  instructed  her  little  girl  about  God  at  all,  waiting  until 
she  became  older,  that  she  might  understand  better.  Some- 
one else,  however,  told  the  child,  and  the  little  girl  came  to 
her  mother  for  fuller  information.  Then  the  mother  told 
her  fully.  The  child  had  been  taken  some  weeks  previous 
to  the  circus  to  see  Buffalo  Bill.     Ever  since  that  visit,  her 


DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  PRIMARY  AGE        59 

ideal  and  hero  had  been  Buffalo  Bill.  She  talked  of  him 
constantly,  and  when  she  set  chairs  for  her  dolls  at  pla3dng 
tea,  she  set  an  empty  chair  for  Buffalo  Bill,  pretending  that 
he  was  present.  When  told  about  God,  the  child  looked  up 
at  her  mother  and  said:  "Well,  mamma,  then  I  must  set  a 
chair  for  God,  mustn't  I?"  The  mother  took  her  literally, 
and  said  "yes."  The  next  time  the  child  was  playing,  there 
were  two  chairs  set,  one  for  God,  and  one  for  Buffalo  Bill. 
JSTo  harm  is  done,  probably,  by  this  kind  of  anthropomorphism, 
and  the  child  outgrows  it  in  time. 

Probably  the  tenth  year  is  the  general  turning  point, 
when  the  period  of  childish  credulity  passes  away.  Great  care 
should  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  symbolism  at  this  time,  for 
the  child's  idea  of  a  symbol  may  be  vastly  different  from  that 
which  the  teacher  holds.  The  child  explains  one  thing  by 
another  thing.  He  makes  chairs  to  represent  a  train  of  cars. 
He  knows  the  train  of  cars,  and  he  knows  the  chairs.  He 
makes  the  one  stand  for  the  other.  He  never  has  the  chairs 
represent  what  he  does  not  understand ;  and  so  the  illustration 
of  the  text,  "My  soul  doth  magnify  the  Lord,"  by  the  use  of 
a  magnifying  glass,  is  totally  unpedagogical ;  for,  while  the 
magnifying  glass  magnifies  or  makes  larger  the  object  over 
which  it  is  placed,  the  term  "magnify"  in  the  text  has  a  very 
different  significance.  Many  symbols  used  by  the  adult 
teacher,  therefore,  are  totally  foreign  to  the  child.  The  sym- 
bol must  be  the  child's  symbol,  the  child's  way  of  looking  at 
the  thing.  Symbolism  to  the  adult  is  a  representation  of 
spiritual  truth  by  means  of  material  things.  To  the  child, 
the  symbol  stands  for  the  object. 

Personification. — Not  only  does  the  child  personify  re- 
ligion to  a  marked  degree,  demanding  clear,  definite,  personal 
teaching  about  God,  but  it  personifies  concrete,  inanimate  ob- 
jects. Literally,  it  talks  to  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  To  its 
playthings  it  attributes  life.     On  a  railroad  train,  one  day,  a 


(iO  Till-:   KLKMKXTS  OF  CHIIJ)  STUDY 

little  lour-vear-old  yomigster  was  looking  at  a  J'lviglit  train, 
and  luid  been  talking  to  its  mother  about  this  kind  of  a  train. 
As  the  passenger  car  pulled  away  from  the  freight,  the  child 
looked  out  of  the  window  and  said,  "Good-by,  Mr.  Freight 
Train."  Similar  instances  are  constantly  found  with  children 
of  this  age. 

This  element  can  be  widely  used  by  the  kindergarten 
teacher  through  similar  occasional  presentation  of  inanimate 
objects  used  in  teaching.  It  will  throw  her  in  accord  witli 
the  child's  mind,  and  create  the  sympathy  between  her  and 
the  child.  This  does  not  mean  "baby  talk."'  The  child  does 
not  talk  "baby  talk"  because  he  wants  to,  but  because  he  can- 
not help  himself.  x\s  we  have  said,  the  larger  muscle  motions 
develop  first,  then  the  more  delicate  ones;  and  Ave  help  the 
child  talk  correctly,  not  by  talking  "baby  talk,"  but  by  speak- 
ing in  adult  language  towards  which  he  is  striving,  and  which 
he  will  articulate  correctly  wlicn  he  can  nuike  his  muscular 
connections. 

Utter  Self-Unconscioiisiicss. — A  small  child  is  seemingly 
self-assertive,  and  "pushes  himself  forward."  For  example, 
he  is  not  afraid  of  front  pews  in  Church,  while  adults  are 
exasperatingly  averse  to  them.  INfany  parents  and  teachers 
are  apt  to  chide  children  for  this  self-assertion.  It  is  not 
that  the  child  is  self-assertive,  rather  it  is  self-unconsciousness. 
It  would  be  a  good  thing  if  he  could  keep  that  self-uncon- 
sciousness to  a  greater  degree. 

This  self-unconsciousness  can  be  used  in  the  Kiiulergarten 
and  Primary  through  recitation,  or  declamation  of  memorized 
work,  under  which  for  a  few  minutes  at  each  session  certain 
children,  who  have  been  given  definite  uuMuory  work,  stand 
up  before  the  class  and  recite  it. 

Tmitativenesf!. — Man  especially  iniiiales;  animals  do  not. 
to  any  great  extent.  We  make  use  of  this  tendency  in  every 
phase  of  education.     "Watch  me,  see  how  I  can  do  or  say  it," 


DEVEUir.MENT  IN  THE  PRIMARY  AGE  61 

is  a  standard  phrase.  This  is  especially  true  of  all  types  of 
manual  work,  where  learning  hy  doing — that  is,  by  imitation 
— is  almost  invariably  the  best  way  of  teaching.  It  is  also 
true  regarding  personal  habits,  such  as  reverence,  love  of 
truth,  honesty,  loyalty,  etc. 

In  the  Kindergarten  and  Primary  ages  the  children  imi- 
tate their  parents.  In  the  next  state.  Childhood,  they  imitate 
their  companions.  In  Adolescence  they  imitate  noble  deeds 
and  ideals.  This  early  stage  of  imitation  is  frequently  lost 
sight  of,  and  attributed  to  heredity. 

Curiosity. — In  the  best  sense  it  is  a  desire  to  know,  the 
seeking  after  truth.  It  is  one  of  the  very  best  instincts  to  be 
cultivated.  The  Inquiring  Attitude,  Avhicli  we  speak  of  later 
on,  is  the  foundation  stone  of  all  education  and  scholarship. 

In  Childhood,  it  confines  itself  to  material  objects,   the 
concrete.     Theoretic   curiosity   about   rational   relations   does 
not  awaken  until  adolescence  is  reached.     Answer  a  child's 
everlasting    interrogation-point,     especially    as    to     concrete 
knowledge,  and  you  need  never  trouble  about  order.     His  ab- 
sorption  will  be   absolute   and   complete.     Curiosity   is   uni- 
versal.    There  is  no  question  of  arousing  it.     Only  supply 
material  to  satisfy  it.     Moreover,  remember,  that  "curiosity 
in  the  child  will  become  love  of  truth  in  the  man."     It  is 
met  by  taking  the  child  by  the  hand  and  leading  him  into  the 
wide,  wondrous  realm  of  truth — investigation.     It  is  Long- 
fellow's :  "Come  and  wander  witli  me. 
Into  regions  yet  untrod; 
And  read  what  still  is  unread 
In  the  manuscripts  of  God." 

And  this  attitude  toward  curiosity  marks  the  trend  of  the 
entire  method  we  should  pursue  in  all  education.  Follow 
truth,  no  matter  where  she  leads;  only  be  certain  that  it  is 
the  truth,  and  tliat  sure  foundations  underlie  the  path  we 
tread  to  her  abode. 


62  THE  ELEMENTS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

It  is  the  t-hikrs  period  of  accumulation.  He  is  gathering 
facts.  The  whole  vista  of  a  new  world  is  open  hefore  him. 
Until  adolescence  he  will  ask  '"Fact  questions,"  and  constantly 
"Who?  Where?  What?"  will  be  on  his  lips.  Without  curi- 
osity, he  could  never  learn.  First  he  is  destructive,  and  then 
constructive ;  first  he  pulls  apart  to  see  what  things  are ;  later 
on,  but  not  before  ten  or  eleven,  he  puts  together.  Keeping 
up  an  air  of  mystery,  and  nuiking  it  a  practice,  occasionally, 
at  least,  not  to  tell  everything,  but  to  leave  something  remain- 
ing to  be  discovered  of  an  interesting  character,  will  often 
keep  the  chikrs  interest. 

Imagination  is  very  active,  and  the  perceptions  are  crowd- 
ing on  him  so  that  he  prefers  to  live  in  the  life  of  make- 
believe,  rather  than  in  that  of  reality.  While  his  perceptions 
are  active,  they  are  not  keen,  nor  accurate.  His  imagination 
is  almost  uncontrollable ;  fancy  runs  riot  in  his  growing  brain, 
and  the  world  of  make-believe  is  often  more  real  than 
the  world  he  sees  and  hears.  The  stories  that  he  tells,  which 
we  call  falsehoods,  are  true  stories  from  his  world  of  make- 
believe,  in  which  he  is  living,  and  they  should  be  treated  ac- 
cordingly. Every  writer  on  Childhood,  with  scarcely  a  single 
exception,  James,  Butler,  Coe,  Harrison,  Birney,  Eichmond, 
Forbush,  Hall,  How,  all  say  that  the  child's  so-called  "lies" 
are  disturbed  imagination,  and  seldom  intentional.  This 
wonderful  imagination  is,  no  doubt,  closely  allied  with  his 
early  memory.  Many  a  child  has  suffered  at  the  hands  of 
his  parents  for  words  which  they  have  ruthlessly  called  "lies," 
though  closely  prompted  by  a  vivid  imagination,  and  seemingly 
true  to  the  utterer.  "It  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  things," 
says  How,  "to  define  exactly  where  the  knowledge  of  untruth- 
fulness comes  in.  Probably  no  two  children  are  alike  in  this, 
and  it  requires  the  utmost  tact,  and  utmost  knowledge  of  the 
particular  child's  character,  to  determine  the  point  where  the 
one  thinff  ends,  and  the  other  besrins."     Most  children's  lies 


DEVELOPMENT  IX  THE  PRIMARY  AGE  63 

are  simply  the  work  of  tlie  imagination.  They  intend  no 
liarni  or  deception  whatever.  At  this  age  they  are  unable 
to  distinguish  l^etween  fact  and  fancy,  and  the  imagination 
uses  both  interchangeably.  The  child  unconsciously  colors  the 
story  in  the  telling.  He  is  more  or  less  inclined  towards 
superstition  the  first  four  or  five  years  of  this  period.  The 
wilder  and  more  unreasonable  the  superstitious  stories,  the 
readier  is  the  child  to  take  them  up,  and  nourish  his  marvel- 
enjoying  mind  upon  them. 

Concretencss. — At  tirst  the  child  can  appreciate  only  the 
concrete,  that  is,  only  some  thing — some  picture,  some  object, 
some  story — which  will  give  him  a  mental  image,  or  mental 
picture  actually  portraying  the  thing  to  his  mind.  He  cannot 
appreciate  the  abstract. 

The  real  difference  between  the  developed  and  undevel- 
oped mind  lies  in  the  appreciation  of  the  abstract,  rather 
than  the  concrete.  The  undeveloped  mind  deals  more  with 
the  concrete.  The  developed  mind  deals  more  with  the  ab- 
stract. The  child  sees  things  as  they  are,  and  does  not,  at 
first,  see  their  relationships  to  one  another.  He  knows  by 
pictures,  or  types.  And,  because  it  is  a  picture  age,  it  is 
jyar  excellence  a  story  age,  reached  by  stories,  and  illustra- 
tions, and  parables. 

There  should  be  a  clear  distinction  drawn  between  story, 
hiography,  and  history.  A  story  is  a  detailed,  concrete  por- 
trayal of  an  event,  or  a  portion  of  an  event,  or  a  man's  life, 
or  a  portion  of  his  life,  so  concrete  and  detailed  that  an 
actual  mental  picture  is  created.  The  story  age  runs  from 
about  eight-and-a-half  to  nine  years.  The  small  child  never 
wearies  of  repetition.  The  same  story,  told  in  precisely  the 
same  way,  is  its  demand,  and  woe  betide  the  mother  who 
varies  a  line  from  a  story  as  she  told  it  first.  "Tell  it  the 
way  you  told  it  l)efore,  ]\Ianima.  You  have  not  told  me  just 
as  it  was,"  is  his  constant  demand. 


64  TllK   KI.KMKXTS  UF  CIIIIJ)   STL'J)Y 

Biogmi)liy  is  less  detailed,  but  more  complete.  Biography 
must  have  a  beginning  and  an  ending;  it  must  bo  presented 
as  a  whole — the  man's  whole  life.  Dr.  Butler  tells  the  story 
of  a  little  child  of  ten  who  burst  out  crying  when  his  teacher 
told  him  about  David  and  Goliath,  only.  "You  didn't  tell 
about  David  as  a  baby/''  he  wailed.  This  Biography  age  runs 
from  about  the  eighth  or  ninth  year  to  twelve  years  of  age. 

History  is  still  different.  History  means  relationships, 
and  generally  rests  on  cause  and  effect.  It  is  the  man  and 
his  times,  that  is,  the  man  in  the  setting  of  his  times.  Thus 
the  same  Bible  material  may  be  at  one  time  story,  at  another 
biography,  and  at  another  history,  depending  upon  the  treat- 
ment, and  the  age  of  the  child. 
Conscience  Undeveloped. 

The  Conscience  of  the  small  child  is  not  yet  developed. 
His  moral  nature  is  guided  by  Impulses  or  Instincts,  rather 
than  by  Conscience.  Questions  of  Conscience  are  not  for  the 
small  child.  The  child  exercises  little  effort  in  choosing  be- 
tween a  right  and  wrong  situation.  Conscience  is  very  vague. 
Conscience  is  developed,  or  rather  it  is  read  and  interpreted, 
through  mental  knowledge.  Conscience  does  not  a])pear 
strongly  in  a  child  until,  at  least,  the  age  of  ten.  A  child 
does  not  think  of  moral  quality  in  the  abstract.  For  a  young 
child,  good  is  what  is  ])ermitted,  evil  is  what  is  forbidden. 
His  religious  ideas  are  few  and  vague;  he  is  not  iinmoi-al,  he 
is  unmoral.  The  sccoiul  ]K'riod,  that  from  eight  to  twelve, 
is  the  era  of  Conscience-building.  The  purpose  of  instruction 
in  his  second  stage  is,  so  to  educate  conscience  and  the  whole 
moral  nature  that  the  child,  being  impressed  with  a  deej) 
sense  of  God's  authority  and  love,  should  be  obedient  to  and 
helpful  to  others,  and  so,  in  right  doing,  find  his  own  happi- 
ness. 

Mrs.  Birncy  says  it  is  in  the  first  tliree  years  of  a  chihrs 
life  that  the  habit  of  Obedience  is  most  easilv  inculcated.     "If 


DI<]VEI.Or.MENT  IN  THE  PRIMARY  AGE  (io 

paivuls  would  only  l)car  this  in  mincl^  they  would  save  them- 
selves inueli  needless  friction  and  anxiety.  The  wee  toddler, 
just  beginning  to  walk  and  talk,  is  quick  to  detect  the  ditt'ei- 
ence  between  the  voice  of  autliority,  and  that  of  irresolute 
command.  I  believe  in  giving  reasons  as  early  as  one  can ; 
but  in  the  matters  of  nursery  discipline,  the  child  must  early 
be  taught  to  obey,  because  he  is  told  to  do  so.  The  child's 
needs  in  connection  with  his  physical  well-being  are  much 
the  same  from  day  to  day,  while  his  wishes  are  subject  to 
many  variations. 

"One  of  the  simplest  ways  of  insuring  obedience  to  law, 
and  a  willingness  to  accept  the  discipline  which  aids  in  the 
establishment  of  right  habit  and  thought,  is  by  a  continual 
direction  of  the  child's  mind  to  the  rights  of  others.  It  he 
has  broken  his  companion's  toys,  he  should  replace  them 
with  his  own;  not  because  he  will  punish  himself  thereby, 
but  because  his  little  friend  would  have  to  do  without  them, 
on  account  of  his  carelessness,  and  that  would  not  be  right. 
The  application  of  the  principles  of  justice  is,  in  the  daily 
lives  of  children,  a  powerful  factor  in  character  building. 

''In  punishing  children,  the  ditference  between  penalty 
and  discipline  should  be  kept  in  mind.  Penalty  is  the  inevit- 
able price  demanded  by  broken  law,  and,  though  it  may  teach 
knowledge  by  experience,  it  does  not  necessarily  develop  the 
moral  nature  of  the  child.  True  discipline  is  corrective,  and, 
when  given  by  either  parent  or  teacher  in  wisdom,  and  a  spirit 
of  love,  tends  to  strengthen  the  will  of  the  child  to  desire  the 
good,  and  to  avoid  the  evil.  Choose,  of  course,  the  discipline 
which  leads  and  directs,  rather  than  tlint  which  threatens 
and  coerces  through  fear." 

Only  one  sanction  is  as  yet  known  to  the  infant — that 
of  success  or  opportunity ;  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  has 
not  yet  emerged.  The  formation,  therefore,  of  the  earlier 
ha]>its  is  a  nornuil  phenomenon.     Doubtless  the  young  child 


66  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  t'llILD  STUDY 

sometimes  pi'csents  an  ugly  spectacle  of  apparent  selfishness 
in  the  satisfaction  of  its  a])petites,  and  of  passionate  resent- 
ment to  restraint  in  their  indulgence.  But  in  such  behavior 
it  is  only  following  its  "nature."  Children's  dislike  of  re- 
straint upon  ])leasure,  until  developed  intelligence  discerns 
its  reasonableness,  is  both  natui-al  and  inevitable. 

Psychologists  tell  us  that,  roughly  and  generally  speaking, 
the  awakening  of  the  moral  faculty  occurs  somewhere 
about  the  age  of  thi-ce  years.  The  rudimentary  stage  of  con- 
science is  called  out  chiefly  l)y  enforced  obedience  to  com- 
mands— obedience  compelled  by  punishments.  It  gradually 
learns  the  content  of  moral  law,  however,  partly  by  instruc- 
tion and  correction,  partly  by  imitation,  and,  later,  by  reflec- 
tion. Thus  there  grows  up  very  slowly  a  moral  ideal,  whose 
fulness  enlarges  as  experience  widens.  But  from  first  to  last, 
the  content  of  the  moral  law  is  learned  from  enviroliment. 
And  when  conscience  has  thus  been  suthciently  developed  to 
enable  the  child,  unaided,  to  condemn  its  own  actions,  it 
ceases  to  be  innocent  with  the  innocence  of  good  and  evil. 
Now,  for  the  first  time,  sin  becomes  a  possibility;  for  there 
is  no  sin  without  a  law,  and  an  apprehension  of  the  claim  of 
law. 

Memory  Strong  and  Weak. 

In  one  way  the  chihrs  memory  at  this  age  is  iveaJi,  because 
psychologically  he  does  not  have  the  strong  ]iower  of  atten- 
tion, so  essential  in  training  memory.  He  forgets  rapidly 
because  he  docs  not  take  time  to  attend  properly,  and  associate 
his  ideas  and  weave  ihem  into  a  net-work  that  will  be  I'claincd. 
But  ])hysiologically  the  memory  of  early  childhood  is  strong, 
since  tlie  brain  structures  of  children  are  very  o))en  to  impres- 
sion, so  that  the  things  that  it  has  stored  away  in  early  child- 
hood will  never  be  forgotten.  In  fact,  tests  have  been  made 
showing  that,  in  certain  cases  of  aphasia  where  language  has 


DEVELOPMENT  IX  THE  PRIMARY  AGE  67 

been  forgotten,  the  last  parts  of  speech  to  pass  a\va\'  in  order, 
are  verbs,  nouns  (the  nouns  or  names  of  things  being  the  lirst 
things  stored  awa}^  in  the  memory  and  the  verbs  next),  and 
pronouns.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  and  smaller  parts  of  speech 
follow  later. 

This  seems  to  be  the  reason  why  aged  people  can  remem- 
ber their  experiences  of  childhood  more  clearly  than  those 
of  later  years.  The  experiences  of  later  life  are  not  so  deeply 
set  in  the  brain  structure.  Thus  we  see  that  this  age  and  the 
next  are  the  best  ages  for  learning  the  Catechism,  as  the  child 
cannot  read  until  he  has  reached  the  third  grade  in  the  Day 
School,  when  he  is  between  eight  and  eight-and-a-half  years 
old. 

Sex-unconsciousness. 

■  During  this  period  the  children  are  so  absolutely  sex-un- 
conscious that  no  one  ever  thinks  of  separating  them  in 
Kindergarten,  or  in  Primary  School.  This  instinct,  however, 
shows  a  most  marked  change  during  the  next  two  periods. 
Childhood  and  Adolescence.  During  childhood  there  is  sex- 
repellence.  The  boy  says :  "I  wouldn't  play  with  girls,"  and 
the  girl  says,  elevating  her  little  nose,  "I  wouldn't  be  seen 
playing  with  boys,"  and  so  they  are  separated  to  prevent  them 
from  fighting.  During  Adolescence  they  are  sex-attracted, 
and,  for  the  opposite  reason,  the  school  separates  them,  in 
order  to  set  anv  work  out  of  them. 


68 


'INK    l-:i.K.MI<:.\'l'S  OK   CHILD  8TUDY 


Tabular  Summary   of  Traits   During    Kindergarten   and 
Primary   Ages. 


1-3,  Instinct. 
3-(;  ]nii)ulst'. 
Physical  CirAKACTEKi.srics- 
Restlessness, 
Activity,  ■ 
Savagery, 
Symbolic  Play, 
Timidity, 
Sex-Unconsciousness. 


,M  i:\TA  I.    ClIAKACTEKlSTlCS 

Frankness, 

Faitli  and  Trust, 

Scl  f -unconsciousness, 

l)ej)endent, 

1  magi  nation  Age, 

Imitates  Parents, 

No  Time  Thought, 

Egoistic  Feelings, 

Concrete, 

Story  Age, 

Curiosity, 

No  Conscience. 

lielieves   Everytiiing. 


QUESTIONS   FOR   STUDY   AND    DISCUSSION'. 

1.  Name  the  Stages  of  a  Child's  Mental  Development. 

2.  What  are  the  Key-words  of  the  Primary  Age? 

3.  How  can  we  use  Restlessness  to  advantage? 

4.  How  does  Activity  differ  from  Restlessness? 

5.  How  can  we  use  Activity  best? 

6.  Why  is  the  policy  of  Repression  dangerous? 

7.  How  is  the  Play  Instinct  educative? 

8.  Explain  the  Recapitulation  Theory. 

9.  What  are  some  results  of  Savagery  in  this  Age? 

10.  How  does  Dependence  figure  in  Kindergarten  educalidii? 

11.  How  do   Faith   and  Trust  Instincts  affect   religious    ideas, 

cially? 

12.  How  does  child's  Synd)olism  differ  from  adult's? 

13.  How  does  his  Personification  afl'ect  educaiion? 

14.  How  can  we  use  Self-unconsciousness  and   Imitat ivciicss? 

15.  Why  should  not  Curiosity  bo  repressed? 

10.  What  effect  has  over-vivid  Imagination  on  '{■rnnifuliicss  of 
children? 

17.  At  what  age  does  Conscience  appear? 

18.  When  is  Obedience  best  taught? 

19.  Explain  the  difference  between  Penalty  and  Discipline. 

20.  What  is  the  condition  of  Memory  in  the  Primary  Age? 

21.  In  what  order  is  language  gained? 

22.  How  do  the  Sex  Feelings  alter  in  tlie  different  Ages? 


(spe- 


SYLLABUS    OF   CHArXER   V. 
DEVELOPMENT  DURING  CHILDHOOD 

SrcaiKSTKI)  ItKADIXC  :— CiiiLDiiooi),  BiniC!/. 

SU.\LAL\KY. 
Child  hood,  6-12. 

Physical  Characteristics. 
Tireless  Activity.     Use  mucli  At-tion  in  teaching. 
Hero  Worship.     Present  heroic  cliaracters. 
Senses   are   Active.      Hence   much    Questioning,    jNIanual    Work,    etc. 

Gains  Facts  and  Knowledge  thus. 
Impulsiveness  leads  to  thoughtlessness.    Impulses  are  forming  Habits. 

Personal  Habits  are  "set"'  hy  end  of  this  period. 
Courage  and  Daring  seen  now.     Will  make  any  sacrifice  for  love  of 

God  or  man,  who  seems  a  licro. 
Truant  Proclivities.     Make  children  contented  with  Home,  etc. 

Mental   Characteristics. 

Independence.  Xeeds  guidance;  but  unseen.  Punishments  especially 
should  be  along  "Natural"  lines  now.  Develop  sense  of  "Neces- 
sary Perception,"  i.e.,  that  certain  things  can  only  be  won  in 
life  when  certain  other  things  have  been  first  performed. 

Crude  Sense  of  Humor.     Due  to  not  comprehending. 

Dominance  of  the  Present.     Lives  only  in  to-day. 

Imitates.     Now  imitates  companions,  while  before  it  was  parents. 

Best  ]\lemory  Age  for  Catechism,  Chants,  Hymns,  Prayers,  etc.  Note 
that  the  Catechism  should  be  taught  inductively,  not  as  a  systeuL 
i.e.,  not  deductively. 

Desire  for  Affection.     Wants  it  bestowed  privately  by  elders. 

Noisy,  but  should  not  be  quenched;  but  guided. 

Collecting  Instinct.     Use  in  Sunday  School  Collections. 

Ownersliip.  Can  be  well  appealed  to  in  having  children  buy  their 
supplies. 

Constructiveness  develops  usefully  in  IManual  Work. 

Desire  for  Certainty  demands  tru^  statements.  Questions  are  Fact, 
not  Thought  type. 

Conscience  very  strong  now.  Teaching  should  be  by  Substitution, 
not   Prohil)ition ;    Positive,   not   Negative. 


CHAPTEK  V. 

DEVELOPMENT  DURING  CHILDHOOD 

Second    Period,    Later    Childhood,   from    6-12    years    of    age;    6-9, 
Age  of  Imitation;   9-12,  Age  of  Habit. 

This  stage  of  bo3'hood  and  girlhood  is  the  great  teaching 
period,  especially  in  Sunday  School.  The  Day  School  succeeds 
in  holding  children  a  little  longer,  often  through  college 
courses.  Tlie  Sunday  School  is  apt  to  lose  the  children,  par- 
ticularly boys,  just  as  the  age  of  puberty  approaches,  the 
critical  time  when  they  most  need  religion  and  loving  guid- 
ance. 

1.     Physical  Characteristics. 

Tireless  Activitij. — This  is  not  so  manifest,  perhaps,  as  at 
the  Primary  x\ge;  but  still  it  is  a  feature.  Children  love 
action.  Doing  is  their  first  thought.  The  best  way  to  teach 
the  Bible  now  is  by  doing  Christian  work,  bringing  into  play 
both  good  works  and  handicraft  in  class  illustration.  Give 
the  child  something  to  do,  and  his  interest  is  at  once  attracted 
and  held.  He  may  weary  soon  of  doing  the  same  thing.  That 
is  natural.  Change  then  to  something  else.  His  games  now 
are  active  games,  sport  or  romping,  not  sedentary.  The 
heroic  attracts  him,  both  from  its  phase  of  courage  and  daring, 
and  from  its  activity  and  doing. 

Tlero-ivorship  is  manifest  at  every  turn.  Use  it,  then. 
Present  Jesus  Christ,  the  Hero-King.  Give  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Heroes,  and  the  Apostolic  Record  of  Brave  Deeds.  Let 
him  read  Miss  Yonge's  Book  of  Golden  Deeds,  and  see  how 


DEVELOPMENT  DURING  CHILDHOOD  71 

he  devours  it.  Tales  of  Travel  and  Adventure  form  the  main 
part  of  his  reading.    It  is  his  Old  Testament  time  of  life. 

The  Senses  are  still  the  most  noticeable  feature,  and  the 
highly  alert  child  is  seeking  information  at  ever}^  source.  He 
is  "a  perambulating  interrogation  point."  Be  patient  with 
him  then,  for  it  is  the  learning  period.  Give  him  all  he 
asks,  quietly,  gently,  clearly,  patiently.  So  long  as  he  is 
really  anxious  to  acquire,  take  time  fully  to  explain  all  he  can 
well  comprehend.  His  inquiries  often  appear  foolish  to  you. 
They  are  not  so  to  him,  for  he  has  not  learned  to  see  things 
as  you  see  them.  Mrs.  Kennedy  tells  us  that  a  child  now 
"is  always  hungry,  mentally  and  physically." 

Irresistible  Impulsiveness  marJiS  this  period.  The  child 
is  thoughtless  to  a  dangerous  extreme.  Impulse,  instinctive 
action,  is  uppermost.  Conscience  is  Just  rising  into  power. 
Yet  just  because  impulses  are  active,  that  is,  action-forming, 
it  is,  par  excellence,  the  Habit-forming  age.  As  such,  it  is 
of  paramount  significance,  for  character-building  is  Habit- 
training.  All  the  high  moral  and  Christian  Habits  are  to  be 
formed  now.  Love  of  honesty,  honor,  truth,  purity,  faithful- 
ness, courage,  gentleness,  kindness,  love  of  study,  neatness, 
promptness — in  fact  all  the  Personal  Habits — are  "set"  by 
the  end  of  this  period.  The  habits  of  reverence,  gentleness, 
courtesy,  like  their  opposites,  are  absorbed  by  the  child  from 
those  with  whom  he  is  most  closely  associated.  It  is  in 
these  attributes  that  an  "ounce  of  example  outweighs  a  pound 
of  precept."  The  habits  may  alter  in  the  upheaval  of  Puberty, 
but  it  is  unlikely.  "The  boy  is  changing,"  says  Forbush, 
"from  a  bundle  of  instincts  to  a  bundle  of  habits;  the  trails 
are  becoming  well-travelled  roads.  Boyhood  is  the  time  for 
forming  habits,  as  Adolescence  is  the  time  for  shaping  ideals. 
It  is  the  era  for  Conscience-building,  as  the  latter  is  for  Will- 
training." 


72  THE  ELK^fKXTS  OF  CIITI.l)  ST['DY 

Tliis  characteristic  is  at  supreme  importance.  Tlic  child 
can  be  led  to  undertake  almost  any  line  of  action  desired. 
He  will  rush  into  all  sorts  of  thoughtless  and  heedless 
' 'scrapes/'  or,  on  the  other  hand,  he  will  develop  high  and 
noble  characteristics. 

Courage,  Daring,  Fearless  Recklessness. — He  is  adventure- 
some, and  he  loves  hearing  and  reading  of  such  adventures. 
Xo  sacrifice  for  man  or  God  will  be  too  hard  for  him  to 
endure  now.  Give  him  work  to  do  that  demands  sacrifice, 
either  in  the  home,  or  the  town,  or  the  Church.  Give  him 
tales  of  missionary  adventure  to  read.  Combine  the  heroic 
with  the  daring,  and  make  him  see  the  distinction  between 
the  two. 

The  fiffhting  instinct  offers  a  useful  illustration  of  the 
general  superiority  of  substitution  over  repression  as  a  means 
for  inhibiting  instincts.  If  punishing  boys  for  fighting  would 
cure  them  of  it,  the  instinct  would  be  its  own  cure ;  foi-  fight- 
ing itself  brings  physical  pain  enough.  As  we  all  know,  mere 
repression  is  here  a  most  uneconomical  preventive;  whereas 
the  su])stitution  of  orderly  boxing  and  wrestling,  foot-ball, 
l)asket-l)all,  and  the  like,  often  succeeds  admira])ly.  You  can- 
not push  the  jSTiagara  Eiver  back  into  Lake  Erie  and  keep  it 
there,  but  you  can,  by  creating  new  channels  for  it,  make  it 
drive  the  wheels  of  factories  in  the  service  of  man.  So  often 
with  the  impulses  of  human  nature  we  can  guide  wisely. 

Truant  Proclivities.  Truancy  is  closely  related  to  the 
migrating  instinct,  and  is  even  seen  at  the  eighth  or  ninth 
year.  More  boys  run  away  from  home  about  that  time,  or  at 
the  age  of  eleven,  than  at  any  period  of  life.  Home  life,  if 
not  agreeable,  strengthens  the  truant  tendency.  Moral  delin- 
quency is  often  the  cause  of  giving  the  impression  to  the 
instinct  resulting  in  truancy  from  home,  school,  etc.  Well-fed 
children,  however,  are  not  so  likely  to  run  away  as  those  who 
are  poorly  fed.     Scolding,  nagging,  punishment,  and  abuse. 


UKVELOPiMENT   1)1" R IXC   CHILDHOOD  73 

are  very  apt  to  drive  cliiltlreii  away.  'J'lic  part  of  Suiiday 
School  and  Day  School  teachers  is  to  make  the  children  con- 
teuted,  and  to  endeavor  to  cahu  the  restlessness  which  gives 
them  tlie  desire  to  rove.  Especially  one  ought  not  to  feed  the 
instinct  hy  tales  of  the  Jesse  James  robberies,  or  of  liuntuig 
Indians,  or  killing  wild  animals. 

2.     Mental  CiiARxVCTErasTics. 

Rising  Desire  for  Independence. — This  is  not  so  strong 
as  later ;  but  tlie  boy  does  not  want  to  "be  tied  to  his  mother's 
apron-strings."  He  has  friendships,  but  not  close  ones.  lie 
is  not  chummy  yet.  Apron-strings  are  needed  badly,  but 
they  must  be  unseen.  The  mother  who  stands  at  the  door  on 
a  Saturday  morning,  as  her  ten-year-old  Johnny  is  leaving 
with  some  companions  for  a  long  walk  in  the  country,  and 
sliouts  out  to  him :  "Johnny,  see  that  you  are  back  home  by 
half-past  twelve,  or  you  will  get  no  lunch,"  is  most  unwise. 
John's  companions  are  almost  sure  to  say  to  him :  "Humph  ! 
tied  to  your  mother's  apron  strings,  eh?"  The  judicious 
mother  will  have  her  quiet  talks  with  Johnny,  give  him  advice 
rather  than  reprimand,  lead  him  and  guide  him,  but  all 
behind  the  scenes,  dealing  with  him  alone,  not  even  before  his 
brothers  and  sisters.  When  he  comes  home  from  school, 
although  he  may  have  had  his  lunch  at  the  noon  hour,  she 
gives  him  a  little  bite  in  the  afternoon,  and  realizes  that  "the 
way  to  a  boy's  heart  is  often  through  his  stomach." 

Punishments,  especially  during  tJiis  period,  must  be  alotig 
natural  lines.  Always  follow  N"ature's  method.  Let  the  deed 
bring  its  own  results,  and  let  the  punishments  always  be  con- 
nected in  some  direct  way  witli  it  as  a  natural  consequence. 
Have  the  child  learn  that  no  sin  or  wrong  doing  can  he  com- 
mitted that  does  not,  in  some  time  or  other,  bring  its  punish- 
ments. Thus,  retributive  punishment  is  never  inflicted  in 
anger.      Arbitrary    punishment,    such    as    scolding,    shaking. 


74  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

whipping,  shutting  in  a  dark  closet,  etc.,  liave  no  connection 
in  the  child's  mind  with  the  wrong  act,  and  a  feeling  of  in- 
justice is  certain  to  rise  in  him. 

But  retributive  punishment  deals  with  each  duty  on  its 
own  plane,  and  with  retributive  punishment  should  come  re- 
wards when  due.  This  does  not  arouse  hostility,  nor  in  any 
way  destroy  the  feeling  of  independence  on  the  part  of  the 
child.  "Unless  the  man  has  a  will  within  him,"  says  Emer- 
son, "you  can  tie  him  to  nothing."  And  "the  entire  object 
of  true  education,"  says  Euskin,  in  his  Traffic,  "is  to  make 
people  not  merely  do  the  right  things,  but  to  enjoy  the  right 
things — not  merely  industrious,  but  to  love  industry — not 
merely  learned,  but  to  love  knowledge — not  merely  pure,  but 
to  love  purity — not  merely  just,  but  to  hunger  and  thirst 
after  justice."  And  so  the  farther  the  child's  self-government 
is  advanced,  the  higher  his  ideals  of  right  and  wrong,  the 
finer  will  be  his  education. 

Develop  in  him  the  sense  of  necessary  perception.  Let 
him  realize  that  certain  things  must  be  done  in  order  that 
other  things  may  be  enjoyed.  Most  children,  when  riglidy 
trained,  can  be  brought  into  obedience  without  being  forced 
into  it.  "Character  is  to  be  praised,  rather  than  clothes, 
effort  which  helps  to  strengthen  the  character  rather  than  any 
external  gift  or  attraction  whatsoever,  and,  little  by  little, 
will  come  the  realization  that  free  will  is  not  the  liberty  to  do 
whatever  one  likes,  but  the  power  to  compel  oneself  to  obey 
laws  of  right,  to  do  whatever  ought  to  be  done  in  the  ve]'y 
face  of  otherwise  overwhelming  impulse." 

Dr.  Butler,  in  his  Churchman's  Manual,  gives  several 
pages  of  splendid  advice  along  this  line,  and  his  book  is 
worthy  of  careful  study.  Now  is  the  time  when  authority 
must  be  respected,  and  the  spirit  of  the  present  age — thf, 
spirit  of  revolt  against  all  authority — must  be  savagely  com- 
batted.     Certain  phases  of  life  in  our  cities  are  disquieting 


DEVELOPMENT  DURING   CHILDHOOD  75 

to  a  great  many  youths,  since  they  show  how  proper  laws  i"iiay 
be  broken  at  the  will  of  selfish,  inconsiderate  people,  as  may 
be  seen  in  any  elevated  or  subway  car.  Boys  soon  think  it 
mannish  to  do  such  things  and,  like  their  older  brothers,  take 
a  certain  crade  pleasure  in  defying  the  regulations  of  the 
company  by  showing  this  spirit.  One  of  the  noblest  heritages 
of  life,  and  one  of  its  most  useful  adjuncts,  is  this  delerniined 
respect  of  authority  and  law. 

Crudity  of  the  Sense  of  Humor. — The  younger  cluld's 
sense  of  humor  is  rather  irritating  to  the  adult.  Children 
are  always  giggling  at  things  that  in  no  way  strike  ^]m  adult 
as  funny.  They  see  incongruities  in  sets  of  ideas,  wliicli  do 
not  seem  incongruous  to  adults.  The  child  is  apt  to  laugh 
at  anything  he  does  not  understand  and  in  this  age  of  child- 
hood will  show  a  sense  of  humor  which  seems  inexplicable  to 
the  adult.  In  the  later  adolescent  age,  the  silly  giggling  of 
the  teens,  under  which  young  girls  will  go  off  into  gales  of 
laughter  at  absolutely  nothing  is  based  not  upon  a  sense  of 
humor,  but  upon  unbalanced  nerves. 

While  this,  like  the  other  passing  traits,  will  presently 
change  for  the  better,  under  normal  and  favorable  conditions, 
the  tendency  of  the  coarse  and  raw  joking  of  the  press,  and 
especially  the  Sunday  papers,  renders  the  conditions  abnormal, 
and  cannot  but  have  an  evil  influence  on  the  susceptible  mind 
of  the  child. 

Dominance  of  the  Present. — The  future,  and  especially 
the  future  life  and  the  Infinite,  have  no  hold  on  him.  Ho 
does  not  see  that  far.  Light-hearted,  and  full  of  play  ani 
fun;  attracted  by  the  active,  not  the  contemplative,  side  of 
life;  alive,  not  dead,  in  anything,  he  is  absolutely,  yes  indif- 
ferently, care-free.  Nothing  in  the  way  of  reputation  influ- 
ences him.  Save  for  rivalry,  assertion  of  self,  etc.,  he  "goes 
ahead  his  own  gait,"  no  matter  what  may  be  said.  He  calls 
all  activity,  "Fun." 


7G  THE  KI.KMKNTS  OK  CIlll.l)  STUDY 

liiiilalireiicss. — He  follows  tlu-  Leader  in  evei'ylhing. 
Here  imitation  has  elianged  i'roni  the  preeeding  i)efiod.  In 
llic  former  age,  lie  imitated  liis  i)arents.  Now  he  imitates 
Ills  comiianions,  and  so  begins  to  elumge  in  liis  resemblance 
to  the  eharacteristics  of  liis  parents. 

Great  Reicntirciicss  of  Aleiiiory.  dnring  the  years  from 
eight  to  ten  in  partienlar.  It  is  then  tliat  we  can  store  the 
mind  with  tlie  rieliest  gems  of  Catechism,  Creed,  Chants, 
Psalms,  Scripture,  Hymns,  Selections,  etc.  No  other  period 
will  ever  prove  so  good.  Eeasoii  has  not  developed.  Reflec- 
tion is  consequently  feeble.  Some  of  what  is  memorized  may 
not  be  fully  understood;  the  harvest  will  be  gleaned  later. 
Lay  the  foundations,  towards  the  close  of  that  period,  so  firm 
and  sure,  the  reasons  for  the  Faith,  so  clear,  that,  'mid  the 
seething  storm  and  stress  of  the  succeeding  age,  with  the  fires 
of  questioning  and  doubt  enkindled,  the  foundations  will  h: 
there,  on  which  the  subsequent  superstructure  of  a  reasonable 
faith  will  be  npreared.  The  best  period  for  learning  a  foreign 
language  ends  before  fourteen.  Thus  power  of  absorption 
forms  the  characteristic  of  the  period,  and  verbal  memory  is 
at  its  highest  activity. 

If,  when  the  child  has  reached  the  third  grade  day  school 
— that  is,  about  eight,  or  eight  and  a-half  years  of  age — we 
teach  the  Catechism  by  the  Inductive  Method,  considered  in 
tlie  chapter  "How  to  Plan  a  Lesson,"  we  shall  not  only  inter- 
est him,  but  both  teach  the  Catechism  at  an  age  when  it  never 
Avill  be  forgotten,  and  when  he  will  learn  it  verbatim  et  litera- 
tiin  et  punctuatii)} ,  and  also  gain  the  advantage  of  having 
this  piece  of  memoriter  work  out  of  the  way,  and  time  loft 
for  additional  Memory  Cems  dui'ing  the  succeeding  ycirs. 
If  the  Memoriter  work  be  wisely  planned,  it  is  possible  witii 
keen  delight  to  the  scholars  to  learn,  between  the  ages  of  six 
and  fifteen,  the  Catechism,  all  the  Chants  of  the  Church 
includinc:  the  Te  Deum  and  the  Benedicitc,  about  fortv  .^c- 


DEVELOPMENT  DURING   CHILDHOOD  77 

lected  liymns,  about  t\vcnt3'-Hvc  selected  Collects,  about 
twenty-five  selected  Psalms,  and  ten  or  fifteen  special  pas- 
sages of  the  Bible,  such  as  the  Beatitudes,  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  St.  John  XIV.,  the  Eternal  City,  etc.  Under  the 
former  system,  the  Catechism  has  been  the  dark  thunder-cloud 
hanging  over  and  depressing  all  the  years  of  the  Sunday 
School.  There  is  a  right  and  wrong  way  of  teaching  tlie 
Catechism,  an  enjoyable  way  and  a  disagreeable  way.  It 
depends  entirely  upon  the  process  whether  we  are  in  accord 
or  no  with  the  child's  nature.  The  Catechism  taught  as  a 
system  is  deductive.  In  the  Day  School  to-day,  even  the 
formal  studies,  so-called,  i.e.,  Grammar  and  Arithmetic,  are 
taught  generally  by  the  inductive  method. 

The  Catechism  can  well  be  taught  by  the  Inductive 
method,  and  at  least  one  book  issued  to-day.  The  C^iiurch 
Catechis:h  Illustrated  and  Explained,  treats  the  Cate- 
chism in  this  manner.  Separate  truths,  taught  topically,  will 
reach  even  the  youngest  child.  Like  the  stones  in  a  mosaic 
table,  they  can  be  prepared  in  any  order  desired.  By  and  by, 
after  the  individual  truths  have  been  selected  to  meet  tlie 
particular  needs  of  the  child  at  this  early  age,  they  can  be 
woven  together  into  a  system  after  the  age  of  twelve  or 
thirteen.  This  is  the  only  proper  way  to  teach  the  Catechism, 
or  to  liandle  the  material  of  any  study  for  this  age. 

Desire  for  Affection. — The  boy  is  not  a  mere  animal,  how- 
ever. Among  his  Emotional  Instincts  we  note  Love  as  one 
of  the  deepest;  and  although  it  is  true,  as  Paolo  Lombroso 
remarks,  that  "the  child  tends  not  to  love,  but  to  be  loved, 
and  exclusively  loved,"  yet  this  love  marks  the  dawn  of 
social  and  altruistic  instincts  coming  a  little  later.  Train 
Obedience,  and  the  child  comes  out  of  this  period  with  a 
splendid  respect  for  authority,  withoTit  knowing  why.  Com- 
paring the  girl  with  the  boy,  we  find  that,  though  custom 
may  make  the  girl  slightly  more  conventional  than  the  boy. 


78  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

yet  the  same  traits  of  character  are  manifested.  Probably 
the  more  active  side,  the  heroic,  courageous  aspects  may  be 
seen  more  in  the  boy,  and  appealed  to  quicker.  They  are 
more  fond  of  pets,  because  of  this. 

We  squash  the  small  child  under  eight  almost  to  a  pulp 
or  a  jelly  fish  in  our  love  for  him,  and  we  hold  the  boy  .md 
girl — especially  the  former,  of  the  grammer  and  high  school 
ages — off  at  arms"  length,  when  his  very  soul  is  yearning, 
and  his  nerves  throbbing  for  demonstrations  of  affection. 
This  affection  should  never  be  shown  in  public,  not  even  in 
one's  own  family.  The  mother  who  welcomes  her  boy  when 
he  comes  home  from  school  with  a  good  hearty  hug,  and  a 
piece  of  cake,  will  keep  that  boy's  confidence,  and  guide  him 
through  many  a  dangerous  temptation  in  life.  We  know  of 
one  wise  mother,  a  widow,  with  only  one  son,  who  guide*! 
that  son  during  a  period  of  "wild  oats"  by  encouraging  him 
to  tell  her  of  his  escapades;  and,  while  never  chiding  him. 
advising  him  and  warning  him  against  dangers  and  sin. 
In  the  end  the  boy  became  a  fine,  noble,  manly  citizen.  She 
would  have  had  notliing  but  disappointment  had  she  not 
adopted  this  plan.  Had  she  repelled  the  boy,  sin  would  have 
gone  on  just  the  same,  but  secretly,  and  she  would  never  have 
saved  him. 

Something  should  be  said  regarding  the  noise  and  dis- 
turbance created  by  children  of  this  ])eriod.  There  must  be 
noise,  but  it  should  be  noise  with  a  i)urpose — noise  that  is 
definitely  guided  and  planned.  Children  are  noisy  because 
they  are  alive,  and  the  more  alive  they  are  the  more  noisy 
they  are.  If  ])ropei'ly  guifled,  however,  so  the  noise  becomes 
an  ideal  for  self-activity,  and  occurring  at  tiie  ))roper  time 
and  the  proper  place,  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  be 
discouraged. 

The  CoUectiiig  Instinct. — The  children  are  interested  in 
making  collections  of  flowers,   minerals,  coins,   stamps,  and 


DEVELOP^[EXT  DURING  CHILDHOOD  79 

other  curiosities.  It  is  not  ditficult  to  turn  tins  interest 
towards  Biblical  objects.  Competitive  games  and  contests 
arouse  them;  so  should  the  effort  to  surpass  former  Sunday 
School  records.  "Fair  Play"  is  constantly  on  their  lips  in 
their  games.  Suggest  the  fornuition  of  a  school  collection 
of  religious  pictures,  of  scrap  books  or  files  of  models,  or  of 
Bible  illustrated  nuiterial.  Xeat,  clean  lesson  books,  careful 
notes,  etc.,  may  be  secured  in  this  manner. 

Ownership. — This  instinct  arises  in  the  second  year  of 
life.  Private  o\vnershi|)  cannot  be  practically  abolished  until 
human  nature  is  clianged. 

Loan  a  child  a  lead  pencil,  and  he  will  use  it  mechanically ; 
give  it  to  him,  and  he  will  use  it  with  still  more  interest;  let 
him  buy  it,  and  it  at  once  is  suffused  with  the  halo  of  owner- 
ship. That  is  the  reason  why  it  is  advised  that,  no  matter 
how  poor  or  wealthy  a  school  may  be,  the  children  be  required 
to  buy  the  picture-mounting  book  or  note  book,  while  the 
school  supplies  the  pictures.  Similarly,  in  distributing  Bibles 
and  Prayer  Books,  it  is  far  better  to  let  the  children  pay,  say 
one-half  the  cost,  in  order  that  they  may  value  it.  Owner- 
ship, if  it  costs  something,  creates  interest  of  a  very  strong 
kind.  In  some  schools  even  the  lesson  books  are  sold  to  the 
scliolars.  Just  as  in  many  public  schools  to-day.  Magazines 
which  we  receive  free  we  seldom  read.  Those  that  we  pay 
for,  we  read  to  get  our  money's  worth. 

Coiistnictiveness. — Up  to  the  eighth  or  ninth  year,  child- 
ren do  little  else  than  handle  things,  tear  apart,  explore, 
which  is  the  early  stage  of  construction.  Later,  they  put 
togetlier,  when  they  have  learned  how  to  do  it.  So  education 
siezes  on  the  early  years  for  construction  and  object-teaching. 

Certainty. — The  instinct  for  Certainty  appears  soon  after 
the  child  begins  to  learn  and  know.  It  is  one  of  the  earliest 
instincts  of  intelligent  life,  often  seen  before  the  third  year. 
While  the  child  is  very  credulous  he  is  being  prepared  for  an 


so  Till-:  Kfj-::\iFA"rs  ok  i  iiiu)  stidv 

ai'tcf  life  oL'  investipition,  proof,  and  (.•erlaiiily.  Children 
first  want  empirical  proof,  testing  by  the  use  of  sensations 
and  the  muscles.  Authority  and  testimony  are  appealed  to 
soon  after.  They  quote  others  as  witnesses.  Asseveration  is 
a  common  mode  of  bringing  assurance — "honest,  trulv.  deed 
and  double,  honor  bright,  hope  to  die,  sui-e  as  fate,  honest 
and  true,  black  and  l)hie,  hiy  mo  down  and  cut  uie  in  two," 
are  a  few  of  the  many  terms  of  adjuration  children  invent  to 
satisfy  their  instinct  for  the  true. 

Rise  of  Conscience. — This  is  the  era  for  Conscience  build- 
ing, as  well  as  for  broad  information.  Conscience  is  strong, 
and  the  questionings  of  the  growing  mind  show  eager  desire 
for  information.  He  still  deals  with  the  Fact  Questions,  and 
is  a  walking  interrogation  point.  His  questions  are  ''Where  ?" 
''When?''  "What?"  And  only  towards  the  end  of  this  period 
do  they  begin  to  be  Thought  Questions.  The  child  believes 
in  heroes,  and  does  not  admire  the  contemplative  life  of  the 
hermit.  The  religion  that  attracts  him  now  is  the  religion 
of  action,  and  not  so  much  of  creed  and  rite.  He  admires 
rules,  but  he  wants  to  see  the  reason  for  them.  They  must 
be  clear-cut,  definite,  practical,  meeting  his  present-day  needs 
and  temptations.  He  is  very  ])articnlar  that  others  shall  live 
up  to  rules,  even  though  he  may  not  always  do  so  himself, 
and  he  secretly  honors  them  for  doing  so.  He  is  led  l)y  ex- 
ample far  more  than  by  precept.  His  standard  will  1)0  to  do 
as  he  sees  others  do.  He  will  seldom  reason  oiil  tlio  logic  of 
right  and  wrong. 

Sfi/le  of  the  Teaclipr's  Tmiiiing. — Hui'ing  ibis  entire 
period.  Substitution  should  be  used  instead  of  Prohibition — 
positive  rather  than  the  negative  attitude.  "Do  not  read  that 
book,"  or  "You  must  avoid  that  class  of  books,"  is  to  increase 
the  curiosity  of  the  average  boy  to  see  what  is  in  them.  To 
carefully  praise  a  good  book,  and  tell  one  or  two  of  its  strik- 
ing incidents,  will   excite  Ihe  bov's  desire  to  read  it.     The 


DI'INI'ILOI'.MKNI'   l)li;iX(;   Cllll.DUOOJ) 


SI 


l)<)y"s  in(iM'i's(  is  _<;-raspL'(l  strongly  bv  everylliing  tlial  belongs 
(o  llu'  active  and  to  the  realistic  side  of  lii'e.  Personal  ex- 
ploits, biogi'apliies  of  heroic  characters,  history  presented  as 
(1i-anuitization  and  adventure,  these  all  unite  to  create  a  new- 
interest  in  Bible  history  and  biograjjliy,  and,  through  coniu'c- 
(ion  with  them,  an  interest  also  in  Biblical  geography,  in 
niannei's  and  customs,  and  in  the  social  and  religious  lii'e  of 
the  lustorical  hooks.  This  same  interest  extends  to  stories 
of  pioneering,  adventure,  and  invention,  and  calls  for  the  use 
of  the  record  of  niissionaiy  heroism  as  material  for  instruc- 
tion in  (Christian  courage. 


Childhood. 


(J!) — Imitation. 
1)- 12— Habit. 
Physical  CnARACTERiSTics — 
Less  Eestlessness, 
Still  Active, 
Truancy, 

Desire   for   Reality, 
Daring  Courage, 
Sex-Repellent. 


MeXTAL    CUARACTEUISTICS- 
Sliyness, 
Independence, 
Indifference, 
Grouj)  Age, 
Memory  Age, 
Imitates   Companions, 
Lives  in  To-day, 
Desire  for  Affection, 
Hero  Age, 
Biography  Age. 
Collecting  Instinct, 
Conscience  Rising, 
Demands   Reality. 


QUESTION'S   FOR    STUDY   AND   DISCUSSION. 

1.  Name  the  Physical   Characteristics  of  Childhood,   G-12. 

2.  What   Physical   Characteristics   especially   affect    Sunday    School 

Teaching,  and  how  ? 

3.  What    Mental    Characteristics    especially    affect    Sunday    School 

Teaching,  and  how? 

4.  When  is  the  "Habit-forming  Age"? 

5.  How  does  Conscience  differ  now  from  the  preceding  stage? 
0.    How  does  Imitation  alter  in  the  different  stages? 


SYLLABUS   OF  CHAPTER   VI. 
EARLY  ADOLESCENCE 

SUGGESTED  READING:— The  Boy  Problem,  Forbush. 

SmOIARY. 

Adolescence — 12-18. 

Bodily  Changes. 

Awkwardness.  Due  to  unequal  growth  of  body  parts.  Use  positive, 
not  negative  methods  in  this  age.     Point  always  Forwards. 

Sex-Bodily  Changes  Predominate.  Youth  should  have  the  fullest, 
purest,  plainest,  direct  teaching  from  Parents  now  on  Duties  of 
Self  and  Sex. 

Mental  Changes. 

Sex-Attraction  Powerful.  Cultivate  Idealism  of  the  Opposite  Sex. 
Provide  Social  Intercourse  and  Training  in  polished  manners 
and  noble  ideals.  Need  of  an  adult  and  intimate  woman  friend 
for  girls  now. 

Novel  and  Romance.  Beware  of  average,  untrue,  sentimental  novel. 
Give  only  a  very  few  of  the  best  and  those  most  replete  with 
high  ideals  of  inspirational  nature.  Give  rather  Biography, 
Travel,  Heroism,  in  place  of  Novels,  usually. 

Self-Conscious.     Sensitiveness  is  apparent.     Pride  assumes  high  place. 

Age  of  Ideals.     Lives  in  the  Fulure.     Ideal  is  a  Possibility  to  strive  for. 

Reasoning  now  begins  to  function  strongly.  Cause  and  Effect  are 
seen.  Analysis  and  Synthesis  appear.  We  grow  now  to  think, 
not  so  much  about  Things,  as  about  References  to  Things,  that 
is  to  Relationships,  or  Philosophic  Insight. 

Storm  and  Stress  Period.  Leads  to  Doubt  and  Inquiry.  Infidel  Read- 
ing. Must  prove  the  Faith.  Sceptical  Period  is  followed  by  a 
Lull.     Doubts  must  be  frankly  met  and  settled.     Teach  Doctrine. 

Conversion  Period.  A  Psychological  and  Physiological,  rather  than  a 
Spiritual  Phenonomon.  Every  soul  has  a  Capacity  for  Religion, 
the  Instinct  of  Religiosity. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

EARLY   ADOLESCENCE 

Third    Period,   Youth    or    Adolescence,    12    to    18:     12-16,    Age    of 
Moral  Crisis;   16-19,  Age  of  Romance  and  Ideality. 

This  entire  period  of  youth,  from  12  to  18,  is  divided 
into  Early  Adolescence  and  Middle  Adolescence;  Later 
Adolescence  is  from  18  or  19  on  to  21. 

1. — Bodily  Changes. 

It  is  the  Age  of  Awkwardness. — The  bones  have  grown 
more  rapidly  than  the  joints,  so  that  the  child  is  unable  to 
balance  himself  properly,  and  hence  is  awkward.  He  has 
not  gained  his  new  adjustment  in  equilibrium.  He  is  so 
awkward  that  he  will  stumble  over  a  shadow  on  the  floor, 
and,  if  the  shadow  is  not  there,  he  will  imagine  it  is  there 
in  order  to  stumble. 

Some  of  the  suggestions  which  Mrs.  Birney  gives  in  her 
splendid  book.  Childhood,  previously  recommended,  are  of 
great  value  here.  The  wise  parents  will  never  speak  to  the 
children  of  the  Awkward  Age,  for  it  only  increases  their 
painful  self-consciousness.  The  entire  treatment  of  the  awk- 
ward boy,  "climbing  fool's  hill,"  and  the  silly,  giggling  girl, 
will  be  positive,  not  negative.  Elders  will  help  them  to  over- 
come their  awkwardness  and  self-consciousness,  to  look  for- 
ward, to  be  uplifted,  to  direct  themselves  in  enthusiastic 
activity. 

The  prudent  moiher  will  never  scold  her  boy  for  the 
assumption  of  mannish  airs  and  proud  braggadocio.     Espe- 


84  THE  ELEMENTS  OE  CHILD  STUDY 

cially  will  parents  strive  to  make  the  boy  feel  at  lioiiie  in  his 
home,  free  at  all  times  to  talk  about  his  escapades,  free  to 
bring  his  companions,  even  unexpectedly,  to  call  or  dine. 
The  unwise  mother  will  be  annoyed  at  the  disturbance,  and 
try  to  make  her  home  a  prim  prison. 

Bodily  Changes  Predominate. — The  mysterious  change  of 
Puberty  has  come.  Manhood  or  Womanhood  is  developing. 
The  body  is  growing  with  extreme  rapidity,  and  the  brain 
not  so  much.  The  brain  changes  are  extremely  dependent 
on  the  bodily  alterations.  By  fifteen  tlie  brain  stops  increas- 
ing in  size,  the  large  arteries  have  added  in  diameter,  the 
Iciiiperaturc  has  risen  almost  to  a  fever  heat,  the  voice 
changes,  tlie  height  of  the  body  is  increased.  The  child  re- 
(juires  more  sleep,  and  more  rest,  and  more  food;  yet  generally 
he  is  getting  less  rest,  and  less  sleep,  and  less  food.  The  most 
careful  and  loving  watch-care  should  now  be  given,  and  right 
instruction  imparted  as  to  the  laws  of  purity,  morality,  and 
health.  AVithout  any  doubt,  the  position  taken  by  The 
Ladies'  Home  Journal  is  correct,  regarding  the  necessity 
for  full  information  on  the  part  of  parents  and  teachers. 
The  only  criticism  has  been  that  the  Jouknal  did  not  dare 
to  speak  plainly  enough  to  a  mixed  audience.  This  question, 
however,  is  to-day  one  of  the  most  serious  that  is  confronting 
our  Nation.  Those  things  that  are  of  the  utmost  concern  to 
life,  and  health,  and  happiness;  those  things  that  ought  to  be 
the  purest,  and*  sweetest,  and  the  truest;  that  knowledge 
which  in  itself,  rightly  given,  will  do  the  utmost  good,  and 
will  never  do  harm,  has  been  entirely  omitted  from  the  edu- 
cation of  our  public  schools;  has  been  entirely  overlooked  by 
parents  and  teachers,  and  has  been  left  to  the  ignorant,  wrong- 
minded  information  derived  from  chums,  because,  as  we  shall 
show  later  on,  this  age  of  adolescence,  when  bodily  passions 
are  at  a  fever  heat,  is  the  age  of  close,  chummy  friendship. 
The  boys  and  girls   confide   only   in   their   chums.     Oh,   if 


EARLY  ADOLESCENCE  85 

parents  biit  knew  the  infinite  liann  that  is  done  by  ignorance, 
they  would  never  hesitate  on  this  matter ! 

One  of  our  leading  Church  papers  a  short  time  ago  said : 
"It  is  easier  and  more  pleasant  for  us  to  close  our  eyes  to  the 
pressing  need  for  teaching  our  children  plainly  the  things 
that  make  for  personal  purity,  than  to  warn  them  against 
those  things  that  would  violate  it.  Not  only  is  ignorance  of 
vice  no  protection  against  it,  but  it  is  positively  a  menace 
to  the  purity  of  a  child,  or  young  adult."  A  committee  of 
the  Diocese  of  Massachusetts  presented  a  careful  report  on 
the  subject  to  a  convention  of  that  Diocese  several  years  ago. 

We  have  dealt  more  fully  with  this  subject  in  the  larger 
text  book  on  Eeligious  Education  (pages  139-145 — pages 
that  it  would  be  well  for  every  parent  of  growing  boys  and 
girls,  no  matter  how  young  the  children  may  be,  to  carefully 
and  fruitfully  read). 

Many  parishes  are  providing  lectures  by  Christian  physi- 
cians to  boys  and  girls  of  the  adolescent  period,  separately, 
on  the  physiology  and  hygiene  of  life.  A  special  course  is 
furnished  for  the  Sunday  School  of  St.  Agnes'  Chapel,  New 
York,  and  it  is  not  infrequent  in  other  parishes.  Many 
parents  and  teachers  ask  for  books  of  guidance  for  them- 
selves. Most  of  the  books  advertised  for  this  purpose  are 
more  liarmful  tlian  helpful,  but  tliere  are  a  few,  which  we 
note  1)elow,  that  will  stand  the  fullest  test,  and  do  much 
good.  Among  them  are  Ennis  Eiehmond's  Through  Boy- 
hood TO  ]\[;\NH00D,  and  the  Kev.  E.  Lyttleton's  The  Train- 
ing OF  THE  Young  in  the  Law's  of  Sex;  The  Nobility  of 
Parenthood,  by  Dr.  Wilson,  Physician  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania ;  Start  Your  Children  Eight,  by  Dr.  How- 
ard; Four  Epochs  of  Life,  by  Dr.  Elizabetli  Hamilton 
Muncie;  The  Eenewal  of  Life,  by  Morley;  Herself,  by 
Dr.  Edith  B.  Lowry.  The  Vir  Series,  known  as  the  Self  and 
Sex  Series,  are  standard  books,  and  perfectly  safe.     There 


86  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

are  four  series  for  males^  and  four  for  females;  the  former 
being  written  b_y  the  Eev.  S3dvanus  Stall,  and  the  latter  by 
Dr.  Mary  Wood  Allen.  They  are  What  a  Young  Boy 
Ought  to  Know;  What  a  Young  Man  Ought  to  Know; 
What  a  Young  Husband  Ought  to  Know;  What  a  Man 
OP  Forty-five  Ought  to  Know,  and  the  corresponding 
series  for  girls.  They  can  be  put  into  the  hands  of  the  purest- 
minded  girls  without  ever  a  blush.  In  fact,  this  entire  sub- 
ject ought  to  be  treated  from  absolutely  common  sense  stand- 
points, and  not  as  if  it  were  a  forbidden  and  prudish  topic. 
Certain  it  is  that  almost  the  most  dangerous  and  most  active 
part  of  our  youthful  growing  nature  should  not  be  passed 
unnoticed  by  parents  and  teachers.  The  harm  lies  from 
knowledge  gained  from  unwise  companions. 

Sex-Attraction  is  Substituted  for  Indifference. — One 
should  be  trained  in  courteous,  well-bred,  high-minded,  pure, 
noble  respect  and  worsliip.  ^Tdealism"  is  a  good  term.  Pol- 
ished manners  may  be  a  veneer,  covering  vulgarity  and  low 
tliought;  but  liigh-minded  Idealism  is  inspiring.  Tlie  Social 
Nature  now  turns  to  close,  intiiiialo  friendship  in  (lie  same 
sex — chums,  we  call  them. 

We  i^ointed  out  previously  that  up  to  tlie  age  of  eight 
they  are  sex-indifferent ;  that  from  eight  to  twelve  they  are 
sex-repellent;  but  from  twelve  years  on  they  are  sex- 
attracted,  the  boys  casting  "sheep's  eyes"  at  the  girls,  and  the 
girls  casting  "sheep's  eyes"  at  tlie  boys.  Nature  intended 
them  to  be  together;  we  separate  them  in  school  in  order  to 
get  any  study  done  at  all,  but  there  is  every  reason  that  the 
Home  and  the  Church  should  provide  for  social  intercourse, 
for  the  building  up  of  manners  and  etiquette,  and  for  the 
cultivation  of  courtesy  and  chivalry,  for  the  high  ideals  and 
noble  inspiration  that  should  characterize  one's  attitude  to- 
ward the  other  sex.  This  politeness  should  not  be  veneer, 
but  should  go  down  to  the  utmost  depths  of  our  nature.     A 


EARLY  ADOLESCENCE  87 

gentleman  is  a  gentleman  at  heart,  not  merely  one  trained 
in  ontward  manners.  Teat-li  the  j^oung  man  to  place  the 
girl,  whom  he  adores  with  that  3'onthful,  hut  innocuous 
'•'puppy-love,"  upon  such  a  lofty  pedestal  of  idealism,  that 
wrong  thoughts  of  her  are  impossihle.  Let  the  yoimg  girl 
dream  of  her  "Prince  Charming,"  but  let  that  Prince  Charm- 
ing be  the  true  prince  in  heart  and  life  principles.  "Next  to 
God,  in  the  eyes  of  a  young  man,  is  the  woman  in  whom  he 
believes."  If  parents  and  teachers  in  the  Church  do  not 
teach  young  women  absolutely  to  respect  themselves  and  hold 
high  ideals,  our  young  men  cannot  help  but  be  dragged 
down.  The  lady  who  permits  her  escort  at  the  after-theatre 
restaurant  to  put!  cigarette  smoke  across  the  table,  without 
any  doubt  lowers  the  ideal.  If  the  home  and  the  Church  ai-e 
open  to  our  young  people  of  both  sexes,  in  social  gatherings, 
and  if  the  leaders  are  truly  virtuous,  dignified,  and  gentle, 
right  ideals  and  high  motives  can  be  inculcated  and  "set" 
into  habits.  Talking  and  teaching  and  reading  will  never 
do  it  alone. 

In  that  splendid  handbook  of  the  Junior  League,  Making 
Men  and  Women,  by  Miss  Pobinson,  we  have  some  advice 
that  is  worth  quoting  verbatim,  and  worth  reading  with 
precision : 

"Every  girl  should  have  some  adult  friend,  who  is  a  friend 
indeed,  at  this  time  of  life,  some  one  who  will  talk  boys  M'ith 
her,  and  who  will  not  consider  her  bo3^-infatuation  silly ; 
some  one  to  whom  she  may  talk  as  freely  as  to  other  girls. 
If  that  someone  can  be  a  teacher  or  Junior  leader,  who  can 
be  such  a  friend  to  all  the  girls  that  they  will  talk  together  in 
her  presence,  she  has  a  wonderful  opportunity  opened  before 
her.  An  inestimable  injury  is  done  our  girls  by  those  who 
love  them  best,  through  ignorance  that  leads  to  the  very 
prevalent  luihit  of  teasing  them  about  the  boys. 


88  THE   ELK.MENT8  UE  CHILI)  STUDY 

"'J'lie  parent  or  teacher  who  can  keop  up  the  '^ehum'  rela- 
tionship between  tlie  boys  and  girls  during  the  early  years  of 
Adolescence^  nntil  the  sense  of  sex  has  become  established  in 
purity  and  sacredness,  has  done  much  for  the  girls  as  well  as 
for  the  boys.  The  'boy  age/  thus  pushed  back  until  the  age 
of  sixteen  or  seventeen,  may  be  more  intense  in  its  mani- 
festations, but  will  be  fraught  with  far  less  danger  to  the 
girls. 

"To  the  developing  girl  of  this  period,  life  is  full  of  ques- 
tions and  puzzles.  To  the  mother  belongs  the  privilege  of 
answering  these  questions,  and  unfolding  the  holy  things  of 
life;  but  many  mothers  do  not  realize  the  saving  powder  thus 
committed  to  them.  The  girls  must  turn  elsewdiere  with  the 
questions  which  come  to  every  girl,  and  the  teacher  or  Junior 
leader  must  be  prepared  to  be  the  mother  to  them. 

"How  shall  these  questions  be  met?  As  something  to  be 
ashamed  of  and  concealed?  Never;  for  they  are  as  much 
a  part  of  girl  nature  as  is  the  pretty  face  and  bright,  fresh 
complexion.  They  must  be  treated  as  sacred,  and  yet  with 
a  freedom  that  shall  not  tend  to  morbidness.  Information 
should  not  be  forced  upon  girls,  except  in  cases  where  health 
demands  it;  but  questions  should  be  answered  honestly,  rev- 
erently, and  without  the  slightest  embarrassment." 

2. — Mental  Changes. 

The  Novel  in  the  Age  of  Romance. — President  Butler,  in 
one  of  his  class  lectures,  dealing  with  the  fondness  of  the 
adolescent  for  the  romantic  and  sentimental,  stated  that,  in 
his  opinion,  it  was  wise  to  curb  rather  than  to  feed  these 
over-urgent  passions  at  this  time,  at  least  before  sixteen  or 
seventeen.  At  this  time  the  child  needs  guiding  and  suli- 
duing  influences,  rather  than  to  have  his  imagination  fed  by 
Avild  day-dreams,  and  air-castles  of  romanticism.  Day-dream- 
ing and  air-castles  are  needed,  as  we  shall  show  later,  but  not 


EAHI.Y  ADOJ.ESCENCE  89 

along  these  lines  of  unreality;  and  so  lie  urges  that  the  novel 
be  kept  from  our  young  people,  and  that  in  its  place  be  given 
books  of  biography  and  travel  and  heroism,  all  of  which  arc 
possible  of  realization.  If  the  novel  were  true  to  life,  it  would 
perhaps  not  be  so  dangerous ;  but  it  is  not.  Every  novel  ends 
one  way,  at  least  if  it  is  to  have  a  sale — "then  they  married 
and  were  hapjjy  ever  after."  Moreover,  the  novel  of  to-day 
is  not  what  it  was  a  single  generation  ago.  A  quotation  from 
The  London  TELEGRArii  of  recent  date  says :  "It  is  common 
knowledge  with  everyone  who  reads  books  that,  during  the  last 
generation,  the  English  novel  has  steadily  claimed  a  greater 
freedom.  Subjects  are  now  dealt  with  at  which  the  mid- 
A^ictorians  would  have  hid  their  faces.  There  is  a  realistic 
treatment  and  a  frankness  of  language  concerning  matters 
of  sex,  which  the  last  three-quarters  of  the  nineteenth  century 
would  not  tolerate.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  we  have  not 
advanced.     We  have  gone  back." 

Mrs.  Lamoreaux,  in  her  little  book  on  the  Unfolding 
Life,  has  written  some  bright  and  interesting  paragraphs 
upon  "The  Beading  Craze,"  which  deserve  to  be  quoted  in 
full : 

"The  flame  of  hero-worship  is  fed  from  two  sources — the 
life  of  someone  near  to  the  child,  and  the  passionate  delight 
in  reading  Avhich  characterizes  the  years  from  about  ten  to 
fifteen,  and  is  especially  marked  from  twelve  to  fourteen.  The 
choice  of  books  will  naturally  be  governed  by  the  strongest 
interests.  We  are  not  surprised,  therefore,  that  every  page 
must  teem  with  life  and  chronicle  some  achievement,  prefer- 
ably in  the  physical  realm ;  for,  in  the  thought  of  the  Junior, 
'Greater  is  he  that  takcih  a  city,  than  he  who  ruleth  his  own 
spirit.' 

"Toward  ilie  latter  ])art  of  this  period  the  sentimental 
novel,  with  all  of  its  frolli  and  perverted  ideals  of  life,  appeals 


itO  TIIK   KLKMKNTS  OK  CllllJ)   STUDY 

to  the  girl,  and  it  is  an  o})t'n  ([lu'stion  wliieli  is  more  pernicious, 
'Deadwood  Dick  and  the  Indians/  or  'Love  at  Siglit/ 

"When  it  is  remembered  that  during  these  years  the  de- 
sire for  reading  is  so  great  that  it  will  be  satisfied,  surrep- 
titiously if  not  -openly,  that  tlic  lieros  and  heroines  strengthen 
ideals  of  their  own  type  in  the  soul  of  the  child,  that  these 
are  the  years  in  which  taste  is  being  formed,  not  only  in  read- 
ing l)ut  in  living.  Nurture  again  has  a  great  task  outlineil. 
'What  is  the  best  M-ay  to  keep  a  boy  from  eating  green  ap- 
ples?' a  prominent  Sunday  School  worker  often  asks,  in  a 
convention.  The  answer  never  varies :  'Give  him  ripe  ones 
to  eat !'  The  child  who  has  plenty  of  well-selected,  whole- 
some literature  Avill  have  no  appetite  for  the  baneful.  Bi- 
ography of  the  heroic  type,  exploration,  adventure  and  charm- 
ing romances,  like  the  Waverlcy  Novels,  A\ill  help  to  lay 
sane  and  pure  foundations  of  character.  The  missionary 
boards  are  now  putting  out  books  as  thrilling  and  stirring  in 
their  situations  as  any  yellow-ljaeked  novel.  These  the  chil- 
dren devour,  and  the  spiritual  heroism  makes  its  silent  appeal 
along  with  the  physical. 

"This  delight  in  reading  makes  com})aratively  easy  the 
formation  of  the  habit  of  daily  Bible  reading.  If  'the  life 
is  more  than  meat,'  then  the  time  taken  by  the  fatlier  or 
mother  to  select  fascinating  Bible  biographies  and  stories, 
and  tactfully  to  supervise  the  I'eading,  is,  at  least,  as  wisely 
expended  as  that  used  in  ti'aining  a  grape-vine,  or  sewing  a 
lace  edge  on  a  ruffle.  Is  it  not  strange  tliat  there  is  such 
distorted  persjiective  and  false  balance  of  values  in  regard 
to  what  is  worth  while?  The  cares  of  this  world  crowd  out 
so  many  sujDreme  things.  IMany  a  temi)talion  in  later  life 
would  have  its  antidote  if  tlie  Holy  Spirit  could  bring  tlie 
needed  Scriptui'c  to  mind:  but,  because  some  one  substituted 
the  lesser  for  the  greater,  solicitude  for  external  api3earance 


EARLY  ADOLESCENCE  91 

insteiul   of   innoi-   furnishing,   the   Word   is   not   there   to   be 
recalled." 

There  are  several  spU'udid  lists  of  books  which  can  be 
recommended  for  general  reading.  Such  a  list  is  given  in 
A  Mother's  List  of  Books  for  Children,  by  Arnold; 
Finger  Posts  to  Children's  Reading,  by  Field,  in  the  lists 
of  the  Church  Library  Association;  in  Margaret  Sangster's 
lliGiiT  liEADiNO  FOR  GiRLS,  and  in  tlic  special  lists  of  mis- 
sionary books  pul)lished  in  The  Sunday  School  Pkorlem 
Solved,  the  catalogue  of  the  New  York  Sunday  School  Com- 
mission. A  very  wise  care  should  be  exercised  with  regard  to 
the  popular  ephemeral  novel,  issued  with  such  glaring  head- 
lines, as  the  ^'Six  Most  Popular  Novels  of  the  Day,"  or  llu^ 
"Five  Best  Selling  Books."  Each  season  now  sees  a  num- 
ber of  books  for  Avhich  one  can  find  no  raison  d'etre  but  their 
impropriety. 

Self-Consciousness  and  Sensitiveness  are  painfully  evident. 
Personal  care  of  dress  and  appearance  shows  itself.  Pride 
assumes  a  high  place.  Ideals  of  dress  are  lived  up  to  most 
fastidiously.  Miss  Uhl  tells  the  story  of  giving  a  cheap 
scarf-pin  one  Christmas  to  a  youth  in  her  class  in  St.  George's, 
New  York.  The  next  Sunday  he  came,  wearing  it  in  a  soiled 
cravat,  but  with  his  hair  brushed  and  his  shoes  shined.  The 
succeeding  week,  the  tie  containing  the  pin  was  spotless ;  next, 
the  clothing  was  more  neat,  the  hands  and  nails  immaculate. 
Other  improvements  in  dress  and  manners  followed.  Miss 
Uhl  declares,  "It  took  just  one  year  to  live  up  to  the  ideal  of 
the  scarf-pin."     But  it  was  worth  while. 

Age  of  Ideals.  Lofty  aspirations  attract  and  hold.  De- 
sires to  do  something  in  sacrifice  and  devotion — enter  the 
Ministry,  Church  Work,  etc. — appeal  strongly.  The  altruis- 
tic feelings  of  humanity  take  hold  on  him.  Drs.  Starbuck 
and  Coe  have  made  minute  searches  as  to  the  appearance  and 
power  of  such  altruistic  hopes  and  ideals.     The  lad  is  full  of 


02  THE  ELEI\rENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

duy-drcains  aud  plans.  We  see  him  follow  Ideals  as  fads  and 
fancies,  holding  staunchly  to  each  one  for  a  short  time,  and 
then  dropping  it  for  another. 

Day-dreaming  may  be  carried  too  far,  yet  we  must  let  the 
person  see  the  castle  ahead,  as  in  Cole's  picture  of  Youth  on 
the  Voyage  of  Life.  If  we  expect  achievement,  we  must  re- 
member Joel's  ideal  of  people  in  the  Age  of  Prosperity  Avhen 
he  says,  "Your  young  men  shall  see  visions."  "Ideals,"  says 
Professor  Jones,  "are  the  most  wonderful  things  in  the 
world."  They  correspond  to  the  apple  in  front  of  the  horse's 
nose.  Ideals  are  never  realized ;  for,  when  an  ideal  is  realized, 
it  ceases  to  be  an  ideal,  and  becomes  a  fact.  An  ideal  is  the 
''vis  a  frontc,"  the  force  from  in  front.  We  can  put  it  tersely 
by  saying  that  before  the  age  of  eight,  the  child  is  ruled  by 
the  "vis  a  tergo''  by  the  force  from  behind,  usually  the  slip- 
per; that  from  eight  to  twelve  he  is  guided  by  the  "vis  mter- 
nus,"  the  force  from  within,  his  own  impulses  and  desires; 
that  from  twelve  years  on,  his  mainspring  is  the  "vis  a  fronte," 
the  ideals  and  visions  ahead. 

Reasoning  and  Developing  Reasoning  is  Seen  noiv.  Cause 
and  effect  are  grasped.  Analysis  and  synthesis  combine.  A 
new  world  is  opening,  and  the  long  vista  of  Investigation  and 
Inquiry  dawns  before  him.  Things  and  persons  will  be  loved 
for  a  time,  then  doubted  and  dropped.  Questioning  the 
foundations,  reasoning,  "Why?"  will  be  uppermost  in  every- 
thing. The  Youth  may  appear  fickle  and  fanciful.  Life 
grows  larger,  past  ideals  are  insufficient.  Let  us  see  how  this 
works  out  according  to  the  psychology  of  our  previous  study. 
The  child  now  sees  cause  and  effect,  because  he  sees  relations, 
because  he  compares  events.  He  lias  formerly  taken  his 
knowledge  as  unrelated  facis,  and  now  he  relates  those  facts, 
and  weaves  them  into  a  system.  In  the  early  stage,  the  think- 
ing process  was  synthesis,  and  then  analysis.  Now  it  is 
synthesis,   analysis   and   re-synthesis.     Formerly   he   cut   Ihe 


EARLY  ADOLESCENCE  93 

stones  of  his  mosaic  pattern^  now  he  arranges  them  together 
to  form  the  pattern.  Now  he  can  handle  abstract  thoughts, 
and  think  without  images  or  pictures. 

When  reason  has  developed  Avell,  we  have  secured  the 
change  between  youth  and  manhood.  The  bulk  of  adult 
thinking  is  not  so  concerned  with  things,  as  with  references 
to  things.  We  can  figure  for  ourselves  about  hours  and  cents, 
about  feet  and  pounds,  with  never  an  image  of  real  money, 
or  the  articles  for  which  money  is  paid,  or  the  merchandise 
weighed  and  measured.  We  can  live  in  a  world  of  symbols 
which  stand  for,  and  refer  to,  material  things.  This,  as  we 
have  said  before,  shows  somewhat  the  difference  between  tlie 
developed  and  undeveloped  man. 

The  appreciation  of  relationships — "relativity"  we  call  it 
— is  the  first  real  glimpse  of  the  world.  We  have  not  reached 
the  proper  view  of  our  environment  until  we  see  that  all 
things  are  connected.  It  has  been  well  said  that  "most  of  the 
world  is  asleep  because  it  has  been  taught  facts  alone." 
When  we  see  relationships  in  their  full  significance,  we  reach 
the  stage  of  philosophic  insight,  and  have  our  new  view  of 
the  world.  Insensibly,  instinctively  and  without  escape,  Ave 
are  led  up  to  God  as  the  unit  and  Centre  through  whieli  all 
things  in  the  universe  are  unified  and  related. 

"Storm  and  Stress"  Period.  When  puberty  has  well  ad- 
vanced, the  bodily  and  mental  changes  send  the  Youth 
through  a  fiery,  seething  furnace  of  unrest,  of  questioning 
old  faiths,  of  realization  of  sin,  doubt,  and  anxiety,  both  of 
his  religious  faith  and  its  verity,  and  of  his  own  salvation. 
Conscience  is  acting  vigorously,  and  it  drives  the  youth  to 
personal  investigation.  He  devours  infidel  and  even  atheistic 
books.  He  is  an  object  of  solicitude  to  home  and  Church, 
wlio  imagine  he  is  wandering  into  irreligion  and  godlessness. 
Never  mind !  Starbuck's  figures  prove  that  not  more  than 
five  per-cent  (a  mere  fraction),  ever  drift  permanently  away 


94  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

at  tliis  time.  Almost  all  come  back  to  the  fold,  with  faith 
better  grounded  for  tlie  proving  and  testing.  They  remain 
steadfast  forever  then,  or  ai-e  overturned  in  the  second  up- 
heaval, that  often  ensues  in  Later  Adolescence  or  Early 
Manhood. 

The  sceptical  age,  Avhich  may  be  between  twelve  and  llf- 
teen,  is  followed  by  a  period  of  diminished  scepticism  in  re- 
ligious questions.  Between  fifteen  and  eighteen,  there  is  no 
such  persistent  exercise  of  doubt  as  there  is  in  the  earlier 
period.  There  is  rather  indifference  or  unreasoning  accept- 
ance, Avhichever  it  may  be,  of  religious  questions.  After  the 
age  of  eighteen,  for  many  men  the  great  wave  of  doubt  comes, 
and  for  many  women  about  two  years  earlier.  There  are  two 
chief  causes  for  adolescent  scepticism.  (1)  An  instinctive 
tendency  to  doubt,  a  rebellion  against  authority  of  all  kind. 
(2)  The  re-action  of  reason  upon  new  facts  put  before  it 
without  proof. 

The  Youth  demands  proof.  He  does  not  deny  the  teach- 
er's statements,  at  all  because  he  doubts  the  teacher,  but 
because  he  naturally  needs  proof.  He  wants  to  Iniild  up  a 
logical  system.  There  is  no  time  in  a  person's  life  when  his 
reason  is  so  unflinchingly  logical,  so  indifferent  to  consequen- 
ces, as  now.  x\nd  since  it  is  the  age  of  doubt,  it  should  be  met 
with  the  utmost  sympathy.  There  should  be  no  word  of 
reproach.  Our  religion  will  bear  investigation.  We  should 
not  form  (l()ul)ts  in  them  by  suggestion,  but  when  they  do 
arise,  we  should  have  wisdom  and  courage  to  deal  with  them 
properly.  Do  not  treat  doubt  as  wicked  or,  on  the  other  hand, 
as  "smart"  and  commendable. 

The  Sunday  School  is  not  the  place  to  drag  in  mooted 
questions  of  criticism,  but  it  is  the  place  to  settle  doubts 
Avhen  they  arise,  and  a  doubt  should  never  be  allowed  to  linger 
and  lurk  unanswered.  As  wc  said  before,  when  a  pupil  comes 
with  a  (luery  during  this  Age  of  Doubt,  answer  the  child. 


EARLY  ADOLESCENCE  95 

Do  not  turn  him  away.  If  you  do  not  know,  say  so  frankly. 
It  will  not  be  to  your  discredit.  No  one  is  supposed  to  know 
everything.  But  when  you  say  '"I  don't  know,"  be  sure  to  add, 
"But  I  will  find  out,"  and  then  never  fail  to  find  out.  Do 
not  "bluff"  the  boy  off.  If  you  have  not  ability  enough  to 
transfer  the  knowledge  from  your  source  of  information,  then 
take  him  to  someone  who  can  deal  with  him  first-hand.  At 
any  rate,  under  no  consideration,  let  the  doubt  lurk.  Some 
of  the  saddest  instances  of  the  result  of  this  policy  have  come 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  writer.  One  bright  Yale  man  in 
post-graduate  work  in  Columbia,  said  he  had  not  been  in 
Sunday  School  since  his  college  days,  because  he  had  asked 
his  teacher  a  question  which  she  could  not  answer,  and  he 
thought  if  she  did  not  know,  the  whole  of  religion  was  a  fraud. 
In  a  Washington  Sunday  School  Institute,  a  teacher  stated 
that  a  lady  had  committed  suicide,  who,  on  her  deathbed, 
blamed  her  Sunday  School  teacher  for  not  answering  her 
doubts. 

One  must  watch  carefully  for  this  period,  for  the  Course 
on  Christian  Doctrine,  wliicli  should  be  given  at  this  time, 
may  be  given  too  early  or  too  late.  A  teacher  in  one  of  our 
large  city  schools  said  that  she  had  given  the  Course  on 
Doctrine  to  girls  of  thirteen,  who  appeared  absolutely  unin- 
terested. They  queried,  "Why  should  anyone  want  to  prove 
the  Eesun-ection  of  C-hrist,  or  His  Divinity?  Does  not  the 
(*i'eed  say  so?  Does  not  everybody  believe  it?  Was  not  that 
enough?"  The  next  year  she  was  teaching  the  Apostolic 
Church,  and  they  were  that  year  in  the  Age  of  Doubt  "and 
Investigation.  Then  they  were  asking  her  to  prove  the  very 
questions  that  she  had  proved  the  year  before,  and  which  did 
not  ])roperly  occur  in  their  text  book.  Doctrinal  material 
should  be  given  in  full  during  this  time,  and  the  child  cannot 
have  too  miu'li  of  it. 


90  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Nor  should  we  be  afraid  of  science.  Science  to-day  is 
swinging  back  from  the  materialistic  towards  the  spiritual 
interpretation  of  the  world,  and  scientific  men  are  ranging 
themselves  in  increasing  numbers  in  the  battlements  of  the 
Faith. 

It  is  the  Conversion  Period.  The  psychology  of  conver- 
sion shows  that  this  phenomenon,  with  its  "sense  of  sin/'  is  a 
physiological  and  psychological,  rather  than  a  spiritual,  de- 
velopment. It  gives  the  ripe  and  fitting  time,  however,  for 
Christian  and  Spiritual  teaching.  Like  other  instincts  (love, 
curiosity,  altruism,  etc.),  the  Instinct  of  Eeligiosity  should 
be  seized  and  made  use  of.  It  is  the  Conversion  2)eriod,  and 
should  be  used  as  such  by  the  Church. 

Sin,  however,  and  its  realization  by  those  who  have  fallen 
into  its  meshes,  is  a  very  real  thing.  It  is  the  transgression 
of  God's  law.  It  is  passing  over  the  line.  It  is  the  failure 
to  come  up  to  the  highest  ideals  which  God  intended  us  to 
reach.  Modern  studies  in  Criminology  show  how  real  sin  is, 
and  they  also  show  how  sin  and  disease  are  yoke-fellows,  and 
that  perhaps  three-fourths  of  all  the  disease  with  which  this 
world  is  inflicted  is  due  directly  or  indirectly  to  sin, — sin  on 
one's  own  part,  or  sin  on  the  part  of  one's  ancestors. 

And  yet  every  soul,  normally  constituted,  has  the  capacity 
for  religion.  "It  is  Imman  to  be  religious.  It  is  something 
less  than  human,  or  more  than  human,  or  somehow  extra- 
human,  not  to  be  religious."  Miss  Harrison,  in  her  wonderful 
Study  of  Child  Kature,  has  a  splendid  sequence  of  pages 
covering  this  toi)ic.  No  teacher  should  fail  to  read  it.  She 
points  out  that  all  religion  is  based  on  the  need  of  the  soul, 
the  hungering  after  something  higher  and  better.  There  is 
a  ceaseless  craving  for  satisfaction  which  lies  at  the  bottom 
of  religion,  and  she  also  shows  how  the  present  age  attenipts. 
to  satisfy  the  deepest  needs  of  human  nature  with  husks, 
rather  than  kernels;  with  leaves  and  chaff,  rather  than  fruit; 


EARLY  ADOLESCENCE  97 

witli  a  more  abimdaut  supply  of  physical  comforts  aud  sensu- 
ous pleasures,  constituting  the  very  means  for  thwarting  the 
religions  life. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION. 

1.  Name  the  Bodily  Changes  at  Adolescence. 

2.  What  difficulty  does  Awkwardness  present? 

3.  How  should  Sex-development  be  met  in  Education  at  this  Age? 

4.  How  should  Sex- Attraction  be  met? 

5.  What  duty  have  the  Church  and  Sunday  School  in  the  matter 

of  developing  High  Ideals  and  Social  Intercourse? 

6.  What  advice  is  given  regarding  the  Reading  of  Novels? 

7.  What  place  has  Pride  at  this  age? 

8.  Why  are  Ideals  most  powerful  factors  in  Character-training? 

9.  Explain  Reasoning  and  its  development. 

10.  What  is  meant  by  the  "Storm  and  Stress  Period"? 

IL  How  should  we  meet  the  Age  of  Doubt? 

12.  What  is  Conversion? 

13.  How  is  Conversion  to  be  dealt  with? 


SVM.AIU'S  OF  CHAPTER  VJL 

PERIOD    OF    ADOLESCENCE.— Continued 

SUUGESTED  KEADINC:— The  Teaciu.nu  of  Bihle  Classes,  Sec. 

SUMMARY. 

Conversion  is  a  Crisis,  a  Psycliological  and  Pliysiologit-al  process, 
rather  than  a  Spiritual  one. 

According  to  the  llughlings-Jackson  Tlieory,  there  is  a  Transfer  of 
Brain  Powers  now  from  Lower  Levels  to  Higher  ones. 

Three  Stages — 12-16;  16-18;  18-24;  e.g.,  Ferment,  Crisis,  and  Recon- 
struction. 

Signs  of  Ferment  are  Doubts,  Ideals,  INIiiid-wanderings,  Storm  and 
Stress,  and  Altruism.  Life  may  appear  inconsistent  witli  it.  It 
is  the  direct  action  of  the  Instinct  of  Religiosity. 

Second  Curve  is  between  17  and  19.  The  Thiid  is  between  30  and  33. 
Neither  are  so  sliarji  and  may  readily  be  overlooked. 

During  Adolescence,  the  Child  personalizes  Religion.  It  is  the  time, 
therefore,  for  Church  Activity  and  Service. 

Cang  Age.  Boys  are  in  "Gangs"  and  Girls  are  in  "Cliques."  "Gang" 
is  a  bad  name  for  this  Instinct,  tlirough  "auto-suggestion." 
Parents  fail  to  understand  and  sympathize  with  youth  enough 
now,  though  the  youth  yearn  to  cling  to  and  confide  in  older 
per.sons.  Use  this  Instinct  in  Class  and  Club-organization, 
tlirougli   {a)  "Following  tlie  Leader";    {h)   Self-government. 

Conscience  needs  strengthening.  Give  Laws  and  Sanctions  for  Con- 
duct. Guide  by  Ideals.  Conscience  is  Moral  Judgment,  plus 
Feeling  of  01)ligation. 

Enlightenment,  Aufkliirung,  Clearing-up  Time.  ]\feans  a  Ncw-view- 
of-the-World.     Settlement  of  Doubts  comes  now.  Peace  and  Calm. 

Will  is  developed  at  this  time.  Shows  strong  Personality  and  Deter- 
mination. Moral  .sense  of  Right  and  AV'rong  is  not  .so  strong 
in  Boys  as  in  Girls.  Crime  and  Destruction  apt  to  develop. 
Bravery   is   so  great  tliat   we  actually   gain   bj'   making   Church 


TERIOD  OF  ADOLESCENCE  99 

Doitiaiids   and   God's   Service   hard.     The   liardcr  the   "Call"   the 

more  eager  men  are  now  to  obey. 
Kitual  Appeals  to  the  Adolescent,  because  it  seems  "an  outward  and 

visible  sign  of  an  inward  and  spiritual"'   Faith,  due  to  Ethical 

Dualism,  of  old  tribal  remains.     Girls  like  the  Ritualistic  and 

Symbolic  more :  Boys  the  Spectacular. 
Prayer-Life    of    Adolescent    apt    to    waver    now,    and    Prayer    to    be 

dropped.    Renew  it  by  Providing  Prayer  Material. 


CIIAFTKi;  \11. 
PERIOD  OF    ADOLESCENCE.— Continued. 

What  is  Conversion? 

How  do  we  exjjlain  Conversion,  psycliologically  and  ]jhysi- 
ologically,  if  it  be  not  primarily  a  spiritual  and  religious 
phenomenon?  Its  peculiarity  is  a  crisis,  a  bearing  down  and 
depression  of  the  physical  and  moral  forces  of  life.  Then, 
suddenly,  in  an  ascending  curve,  there  comes  a  rise.  First 
tliere  is  a  lull,  then  a  storm,  then  peace.  Tiie  outcome  is  not 
a  child,  but  a  man.  If  the  Hughlings-Jackson  Three-Level 
Theory  of  tlic  brain  be  true,  there  is  at  this  time  a  final  and 
complete  transfer  of  the  central  powers  of  the  brain  from  the 
lower  levels  of  instinct  and  motor  power  to  the  higlier  levels. 
And  this  "personalizing  of  religion,"  as  C^oe  calls  it,  comes 
to  boys  and  to  girls  differently.  With  boys  it  comes  later,  is 
more  violent  and  stronger.  It  is  more  apt  to  come  willi  them 
when  alone.  Witli  girls,  it  is  less  violent,  but  there  are  times 
of  storm  and  stress,  and  weary  tossing  up  and  down  in  seas 
of  doubt.  It  is  apt  to  come  to  girls  in  a  Church  sei'vice,  more 
than  Avhen  alone.  But  there  is  apt  to  I»e  more  doubt  with 
boys  tlian  with  girls. 

"Next  to  the  ])hysical  birthtiiue.  Ibis  hour  of  psychical 
birth  is  most  critical."  The  adolescent  period  may  be  divided 
into  three  stages:  from  twelve  to  sixteen,  from  sixteen  to 
eighteen,  and  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four,  roughly ;  termed 
the  stages  of  Ferment,  Crisis,  and  Ee-construction.  It  is  the 
time  for  definite  religious  work,  when  religious  feelings  arc 


PEPvTOD  OF  ADOLESCENCE  101 

deepest,  and  the  soul  is  most  easily  and  naturally  stirred. 
The  golden  time  for  Conversion  is  from  about  fourteen  to 
nineteen.  Sixteen  is  the  year  when  the  curve  is  highest,  ac- 
cording to  most  of  the  studies  that  have  been  made.  Social 
activities,  the  appeal  to  the  senses  of  individual  independence, 
and  the  feeling  of  enthusiastic  altruism,  are  so  strong  at  this 
period,  that  they  should  be  appealed  to.  Christian  activity 
and  the  power  of  service  should  l)e  utilized,  and  thus  strength- 
ened and  fixed. 

The  adolescent  youth  should  feel,  that  the  work  which  he 
is  doing,  the  part  he  plays  in  the  Church's  activity,  is  of  value, 
and  appreciated  by  those  for  whom  he  works.  Let  him  have 
something  to  do,  and  let  that  something  be  of  a  character  as 
shall  suit  his  gifts  and  interests  so  far  as  possible. 

And  the  services  should  be  planned  to  meet  the  needs  of 
this  stage,  both  those  of  the  Church  and  of  the  Sunday  School. 
The  Music,  the  Address  or  Sermon,  the  Eeception  of  the 
Offerings,  the  Closing  service,  all  should  be  arranged  to  be  of 
a  nature  appealing  to  manhood.  The  Hymns  should  suit  the 
needs  of  adolescent  nature.  The  trouble  has  been  that  the 
Cluirch  has  planned  chiefly  to  reach  adults,  rather  than  the 
young  people. 

Curve  of  Convention. — Professor  Starbuck  wrote  a  book 
a  few  years  ago  Avhich  is  a  study  of  The  Psychology  of 
CoxvERSioN'.  He  made  a  very  detailed  research,  and  his 
results  are  incontestal)le.  Professor  Coe,  a  devout  Methodist, 
who  would  l)e  inclined  to  accept  the  old  view  of  Conversion, 
brought  out  his  book  in  1900,  on  The  Spiritual  Life.  He 
accepts  Starbuck's  Curves.,  Stanley  Hall,  the  author  of 
Adolescexce,  that  enormous  two-volume  study  of  this  sub- 
ject, accepts  Starbuck's  Curves;  President  Butler  and  Dr. 
A.  A.  Butler;  Professor  James  and  Edwin  F.  See;  Dr.  Wil- 
liam B.  Forbush  and  Professor  Haslett,  in  fact,  every  writer 
on  this  subject  to-day  accepts  Starbuck's  Curves,  so  that  prac- 


102 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 


ticall}'  tlicy  can  be  coiisklored  as  standard.     These  are  the 
Curves:  they  are  wortli  careful  study: 


Cut  No.  1G. 

Somewhere  between  thirteen  and  sixteen,  differing  with 
boys  and  girls,  comes  the  first  rise  in  tlie  Curve,  sharp  and 
distinct.  There  is  no  .mistaking  it.  The  signs  will  be  tlie 
Doubts,  the  Ideals,  the  Mind  Wandering,  and  Storm  and 
Stress,  and  the  sudden  Desire  to  do  something  for  the  Church, 
or  for  mankind. 

It  may  come  with  a  life  that  is  very  inconsistent,  for, 
practically  it  has  very  little  to  do  with  life;. it  is  an  inclination 
to  altruism,  to  do  good,  to  do  better  service.  The  eliihl  may 
be  very  inconsistent  and  seemingly  indifferent  to  religion. 
You  say,  "Oh,  that  child  is  not  fit  for  Coiifii-mation."  Yet, 
it  is  undoubtedly  the  leading  of  the  Spirit.  It  is  undoubtedly 
the  time  when  the  iron  is  white-hot.  Now  remember  that 
the  iron  does  not  become  white-hot  because  you  are  going 
to  mold  it.  It  becomes  white-hot  because  it  is  in  the 
fire.  So  it  is  with  conversion.  This  stoi'm  and  stress 
period,  this  upheaval,  this  grace,  does  not  come  properly  from 
a  religious  source.  It  comes  from  a  physiological  and  psy- 
chological one,  as  we  have  said  before.  It  is  the  time  when 
the  iron  is  white-hot,  when  the  child  is  moldable,  when  the 


PERIOD  OF  ADOLESCENCE  103 

instinct  of  religiosity  can  be  reached  and  touched.  It  is  the 
time  to  strike  for  God.  Tlie  change  of  life  and  conduct  will 
follow  after,  not  come  before. 

We  have  often  asked,  "How  can  you  expect  a  child  to  be 
good  until  you  have  given  him  God's  power  in  Holy  Baptism 
and  Confirmation?''  How  can  you  expect  him  to  be  good  any 
more  than'  you  can  expect  a  sick  person  to  walk  without 
strengthening  his  muscles?  If  one  has  lain  in  bed  for  a 
moiilh.  he  can  readily  say,  ^'I  cannot  walk."  No,  nor  would 
he  e'er  be  able  to  walk  until  he  got  up  and  practised. 

This  period  may  last  two  weeks,  two  months,  possibly  a 
year ;  but  is  more  likely  to  be  very  short  than  at  all  long.  The 
iron  does  not  stay  white  long.  Then  there  is  a  sudden  drop 
of  indifference.  Then  somewhere  between  seventeen  and  nine- 
teen, there  is  a  second  rise  in  the  Curve,  not  so  high  as  before, 
nor  so  sharp  and  strong;  l)ut  longer  and  broader — that  is, 
extending  over  a  greater  period.  This  is  a  second  chance  to 
reach  the  child.  Not  being  so  sharp,  it  may  be  overlooked; 
whereas  it  would  take  a  blind  man  to  overlook  the  first  curve. 
The  drop  occurs  again,  and  somewhere  between  thirty  and 
thirty-three  there  is  a  last  rise,  not  so  high  as  the  second  time, 
and  of  alwut  the  same  duration.  But  if  the  man  has  not  been 
reached  then,  where  is  he?  He  is  in  the  home,  sleeping  late 
on  Sunday  mornings,  or  reading  the  Sunday  newspaper,  or, 
perchance,  playing  golf  or  riding  the  automobile.  He  is  usually 
not  in  a  place  where  he  can  be  reached.  And  the  woman, 
where  is  she?  In  the  home,  occupied  by  home  duties,  in 
society  with  its  distractions;  but  by  a  beautiful  coincidence, 
it  sometimes  happens  that  tlie  woman,  marrying  young,  has 
her  little  child,  now  in  the  first  period  at  twelve  or  thirteen. 
This  child  is  reached,  and  "a  little  child  shall  lead  them"  is 
sliown  by  mother  and  child  coming  hand  in  hand  to  God's 
Altar.     Scarcelv  well  is  it  to  run  the  risk  of  waiting  for  this 


104  THE  Er.E^r f:\ts  of  CKIIJ)  stfdy 

last  period,  liowovoi',  for  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  figures  show  tliat 
only  five  per-cent  are  reached  after  the  age  of  twenty-one. 

During  this  period  of  adolescence,  the  child  now  passes 
out  of  the  stage  where  the  whole  family  or  the  entire  race  is 
initiated  into  a  religion  because  of  the  belief  of  the  chief 
leader.  He  no  longer  speaks  of  "our  church"  or  "our"  posi- 
tion, whatever  it  may  be,  in  the  impersonal  way  so  customary 
a  year  or  two  earlier.  He  forms  his  own  views.  He  is  a 
Christian  because  he  personally  embraces  Christianity.  He 
must  stand  on  his  own  feet.  This  is  the  natural  and  appro- 
priate time  to  put  the  question,  "Do  you  believe?"  It  is  the 
natural  and  appropriate  time  for  tlie  personal  assumption  of 
the  vows  made  for  one  in  Baptism,  or  for  otherwise  serving 
God  in  the  Church. 

Only  two  points  in  this  connection  can  be  touched  upon 
here.  The  first  is  an  eagerness  for  service.  The  young  per- 
son is  now  ready,  not  only  to  follow  a  leader,  but  to  fight 
for  and  champion  a  cause. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  scholar  arrives  at  the  period  for 
grasping  a  specific  truth,  and  does  not  find  that  truth,  if  he 
is  ready  for  a  new  stage  of  spiritual  development,  and  is  still 
fed  only  on  thought  suitable  for  earlier  stages,  his  spiritual 
development  is  in  danger  of  being  impoverished,  or  even  per- 
manently arrested. 

At  this  period  of  development,  there  are  lulls  between  the 
crests  of  the  waves.  Their  explanation  is  largely  physical,  for 
the  hills  are  probably  given  us  tliat  the  child's  body  may 
gather  power.  It  is  the  law  of  rhythm  that  goes  all  through 
life.  Nature  shows  it  in  the  hibernation  of  Winter,  and  one 
should  not  be  discouraged,  if,  for  a  year  or  two,  ])ersons  of 
various  ages  show  a  lull  ol"  interest,  even  in  religion.  There 
is  little  to  do  during  such  a  time,  but  to  wait  until  the  lull 
passes  away,  and  the  interest  arises  once  more. 


I'KIUOD  OF  ADOLESCENCE  105 

\\liei),  Uicrt'i'oi'c,  Dr.  Stanley  Hall  s})c'aks  of  Conversion 
as  a  natui'al  regeneration,  and  a  "pliysiologieal  second-birth"; 
and  Dr.  Starbuck  calls  it  a  "distinctively  adolescent  phenome- 
non," tliey  are  simply  reducing  this  critical  religious  experi- 
ence to  the  terms  of  physiology  and  psychology,  recognizing 
that  the  ordinary  development  of  life  is  according  to  the  laws 
of  CJod. 

The  So-called  "Gang"  Age. — The  use  of  this  word, 
"Gang,"  applied  to  boys,  is  one  of  those  singularly  inconsist- 
ent lapses  of  speech  which  do  more  harm  in  a  single  word  than 
many  labored  chapters  can  correct.  "Give  a  dog  a  bad  name, 
and  hang  it."  Give  defenceless  and  ingenuous  boys  at  this 
age  a  class  name  that  allies  them  with  criminals,  and  they  will 
hardly  thank  you;  nor  will  instructors  who  have  any  concep- 
tion of  auto-suggestion.  The  boys  are  going  in  gangs,  and  the 
girls  are  going  in  cliques.  The  father  suddenly  awakens  to 
the  fact  that  his  lads  and  he  have  grown  apart.  The  peculiar 
self-centeredness  and  sensitiveness  of  this  period  are  the 
causes  of  it.  And  yet  the  adolescent  youths  are  yearning  for 
sympathy.  As  we  noted  under  the  preceding  period,  they 
yearn  to  be  loved,  but  they  will  not  show  it.  "Wise  are  the 
parents  who  keep  in  touch  with  their  children  now,  who  en- 
courage confidences,  who  never  scold  or  repel  them,  but  who 
do  advise  and  guide  them ;  who  get  them  to  tell  even  of  wrong 
doings,  and  wild  oats,  and  shady  actions,  aiming  all  the  while 
to  guide  and  lead  and  help  them.  A  child  will  form  an 
attraction  for  one  older  and  wiser  than  himself,  and  when  he 
respects  and  loves,  will  devotedly  yield  his  life  rather  than  be 
untrue.  The  best  teacher  now  is  an  older  woman,  or  man  who 
remembers  his  own  adolescent  age.  The  unfortunate  trouble 
with  men  at  this  time  is  that  they  do  not  remember  it. 

The  extreme  danger  of  following  a  harmful,  wicked  leader 
is  obvious.  "Leading  straight"  is  a  pre-requisite  of  a  friend. 
Only  genuine  sympathy  on  the  part  of  a  teacher  can  hold  a 


106  THE  ELEMENTS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

class  at  this  age.  "Tlic  follies  of  youtli,"  the  lad's  "'conceit," 
the  girl's  "frivolity,"  become  unbearable  to  any  save  one  who 
can  "understand." 

Use  this  gang  instinct  in  class  organization.  Tlie  gang- 
instinct  means  two  things — following  the  leader,  and  self- 
government.  The  Day  School  recognizes  it,  and  in  New  York 
we  get  the  leader  of  the  gang,  with  his  gang,  into  the  club, 
in  the  night  school,  and  from  there  to  the  educational  classes 
below.  Form  every  class  in  the  Sunday  School  into  the  nearest 
approach  to  a  gang,  and  give  it  a  name.  You  cannot  call  it 
"St.  Philip's  Gang,"  "St.  George's  Gang,"  "St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Gang" — that  will  scarcely  do.  Nor  do  the  names 
"class"  and  "club"  quite  satisfy.  A  good  plan  is  to  call  every 
girls'  class  a  "Guild,"  and  every  boys'  class  a  "League."  Let 
them  elect  their  own  officers,  but  not  the  teacher  as  one.  Tjct 
the  teacher  be  merely  the  director,  "the  power  behind  Ibc 
throne."  Let  one  youth  be  president,  one,  treasurer,  one,  secre- 
tary, and  all  the  rest,  vice-presidents.  Give  everj'body  an  office. 
Let  them  take  turns  in  conducting  the  class  recitation.  You 
will  probably  think  the  lesson  will  not  be  so  well  taught. 
Tliey  will  certainly  think  it  better.  You  will  have  to  do  more 
work,  study  harder,  have  the  class  leader  each  week  at  your 
home,  and  possibly  spend  hours  going  over  the  material  with 
him  or  her;  but  the  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  class,  the 
interest  taken  by  them  in  their  woi'k,  M-ill  well  repay  the  effort. 
School  after  school,  teacher  after  teaclier.  are  bearing  Avitncss 
to-day  to  the  Pedagogical  value  of  this  plan.  Many  a  Day 
School  teacher,  working  out  this  system  in  the  Sunday  School, 
has  said,  "I  never  got  such  woi-k  out  of  my  scholars  before, 
as  T  do  now." 

T}ie  Strenr/tJi cuing  of  Conscience. — Conscience  now  needs 
definite  laws  and  sanctions  for  its  actions.  Hitherto  the  boy 
has  lived  his  parents'  lives  without  protest,  he  has  done  what 
his  teachers,  his  society,  required.     Now  he  must  stand  by 


PERIOD  OF  ADOLESCENCE  107 

himself.  He  looks  forward  and  not  backward,  up  and  not 
down.  He  may  look  up  and  forward  to  evil  and  sin,  or  he 
may  look  forward  to  ideals  that  are  righteous,  and  noble,  and 
generous  and  true.  His  mind  is  marvellously  receptive  to  sug- 
gestion. The  brain  is  quick  to  perceive,  the  muscles  to  act. 
Jf  evil  inclinations  manifest  themselves,  counteract  their  influ- 
ence, not  by  dwelling  upon  them,  but  by  substituting  some- 
thing else  that  is  noble.  Someone  has  said :  "\Ye  grow  toward 
goodness  rather  by  pulling  ourselves  up  to  it,  than  by  pushing 
ourselves  away  from  evil." 

A  thorough  treatment  of  conscience  is  given  in  Huckell's 
A  Modern  Study  of  Conscience. 

The  Century  Dictionary  defines  Conscience  as :  "The  Con- 
sciousness that  the  acts,  for  which  a  person  believes  himself 
to  be  resjionsible,  do  or  do  not  conform  to  his  ideals  of  right; 
the  moral  judgment  of  the  individual  applied  to  his  own  con- 
duct, in  distinction  from  the  perception  of  right  and  wrong 
in  the  abstract,  and  in  the  conduct  of  others.  It  manifests 
itself  in  the  feeling  of  obligation  or  duty,  the  moral  impera- 
tive— I  ought,  or,  I  ought  not;  hence,  the  Voice  of  Con- 
science." 

The  latter  part  of  the  Century  Dictionary's  definition  of 
Conscience  permits  us  to  divide  this  much  debated  subject 
into  two  parts,  which  can  then  be  separately  handled  and  set- 
tled. There  is  the  moral  judgment  of  the  individual,  which, 
like  his  literary  or  artistic  judgment,  can  be  developed  by 
training,  until  it  becomes  his  reasonable  adviser  in  all  matters 
that  come  within  its  province ;  and  it  is  the  function  of  moral 
judgment,  thus  trained  and  reliable,  or,  on  the  contrary,  un- 
trained or  mistrained  and  unreliable,  to  present  the  case  aris- 
ing in  any  moral  crisis  before  the  individual  mind.  At  such 
a  moment  Conscience,  apprehending  the  presentation,  dis- 
charges its  whole  function  of  the  feeling  of  obligation  by 


108  TlIK    KI.KMKX'IS  OK  CIIILIJ  STl  l)\' 

issuinii,'  llic  moral  iiii])('rativc — J)()  this;  or,  l}u[riiiii  Froiii  (loiii<:' 
it. 

The  Enii(jhleninfnl ,  the  Clcuring-uiJ  Tune. — The  yoiiili  is 
easil}^  guitled  and  led  out  of  his  erratic  doubtings,  into  definite, 
clear  convictions  on  any  subject.  Give  him  logical,  reasonable 
proof,  and  lie  is  saiisfied.  ITis  reason  is  so  active  that  it 
demands  ])roor.  Tiiis  pci-iod  has  l)een  called  the  "Aufl\lar- 
uug,"  the  "clearing-up"  oC  ilie  unsettled  questions.  The 
youlli  is  eager  for  facts  and  reasons.  His  animated  face  shows 
it.  "The  niasklike,  impassive  face  at  this  age,"  says  Foi'busli, 
"is  a  sign  of  a  loss  of  youth,  or  of  purity."  "He  who  is  a  man 
at  sixteen,  will  be  a  child  at  sixty."  Starbuck  fixes  the  acme 
of  tlie  doubt-period  at  eighteen,  the  commencement  of  Later 
Adolescence.  The  Storm  and  Stress  Period  ends  in  a  Crisis. 
There  is  at  first  the  lull,  then  the  storm,  then  peace;  and  at 
the  end,  when  peace  comes,  we  find  we  liave  Man  or  Wonum  in 
place  of  Boy  or  Girl. 

The  youtli  has  gone  through  the  turbulent  rapids,  and 
has  come  out  into  the  quiet  lake  l)eyond.  Xo  wonder  a  father 
said  the  otlier  day:  "I  nnderstand  now  why  my  l)oy  wrote 
home  from  college,  'Father,  I  can't  explain  how  I  am  dilferent, 
l)ut  somehow  there  seems  to  be  rolled  away  from  me  a  great 
load.  I  look  at  the  world  ditferently.  I  seem  to  be  lighter- 
headed,  and  it  is  all  so  mucli  brightt'r  around  me."  "'  Of  course 
it  was,  it  was  tlie  Enlightenment. 

Pcrclopiiiriil  of  Will. — We  have  referred  Ix^forc  lo  Ihe  fact 
that  Will  is  developed  during  this  ])erio(I,  and  we  supply  a 
special  chaptei-  toward  the  end  of  the  book  which  treats  of  the 
Development  aiul  Training  of  Will.  'I'he  father  looks  one  day 
into  the  eyes  of  what  he  thought  was  liis  little  boy,  and  sees 
looking  out  the  unaccustomed  and  free  spirit  of  a  young  and 
uncon(|U('ral)lc  personality.  "Some  mad  parents,"  remarks 
James,  "take  tliis  time  to  begin  the  charming  task  of  break- 
ing the  child's  will,  which  is  usually  set  about  with  the  same 


TERIOD  OF  ADOLESf'EXCE  100 

energy  and  inii)lcnients  as  Uie  heating  of  carpets."  But  tlie 
boy  is  too  big  to  be  licked,  or  to  be  mentally  or  morally 
coerced.  Haslett  says,  "Most  fights  occur  at  this  stage.  The 
youth  is  apt  to  cause  more  real  commotion  and  trouble  to  the 
hour,  than  at  any  other  time  between  birth  and  maturity. 
Tt  wouhl  seem  tliat  he  smells  fight  and  contention  in  the  very 
air  he  lireathes.  If  he  cannot  fight,  then  smaller  ones  are 
encouraged  to  engage  in  a  friendly  scrimmage — trouble  he 
must  have." 

Some  reformers  tliink  that  if  a  change  for  a  purer  moral 
life  does  not  occur  before  the  age  of  twelve,  it  is  not  likely  to 
be  accomplished,  except  at  great  cost  afterwards.  The  forces 
and  qualities  that  are  present  and  dominate  before  puberty  are 
likely  to  be  strengthened  l)y  the  change.  Hence  the  argument 
for  the  early  and  careful  religious  and  moral  training  of  chil- 
dren. It  is  an  illustration  of  the  great  fact  tliat  life  tends 
to  hold  together,  each  stage  preparing  for  the  following  stage. 

"The  moral  sense  in  hoys  is  not  as  acute  as  in  girls. 
Boys  do  not  make  such  fine  distinctions  in  relation  to  right 
and  wrong.  Swearing,  stealing,  lying,  incendiarism,  murder, 
etc.,  are  crimes  to  be  avoided,  as  the  boy  of  thirteen  or  four- 
teen views  things.  Acts  must  be  very  wrong,  very  violent  and 
harmful,  or  he  will  not  l)e  so  likely  to  think  them  serious. 
Girls  mention  immodesty,  untidiness,  pouting,  carelessness, 
masculinitv,  etc.,  as  wrong.  With  them  it  is  taken  for 
granted  tliat  the  baser  and  more  violent  crimes  are  violations 
of  right.  The  first  crime  that  comes  under  the  ban  of  the 
law  is  vagrancy,  including  petty  acts  of  pilfering.  This  is 
tlie  age  Avhen  boys  are  apt  to  become  general  nuisances,  imi- 
tating in  no  small  degree  their  superiors  in  this  line." 

Tt  is  the  dime  novel,  the  "yellow-hack  literature"  stage. 
General  meanness  develops  fast  when  once  started.  Crime 
against  property  follows  that  of  vagrancy,  as  a  rule.  Destruc- 
tiveness  manifests  itself,  witli  native  tendencv  to  torture  and 


110  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

destroy.  This  is  the  age  wlicn  orchards  arc  apt  to  be  visited 
frequently  by  boys;  buildings,  notices,  and  fences  disfigured. 
Crime  against  persons  follows  that  against  property.  Dr. 
Marro  finds  that  before  fifteen,  crime  against  persons  is  rare 
compared  to  the  ten  years  following  that  year.  Most  frequent 
infractions  in  prisons  are  by  young  men.  Sikorski  reported 
tliat  the  most  frequent  infractions  against  the  rules  of  the 
military  school  were  from  thirteen  to  fifteen.  A  study  made 
l>y  Dr.  Marro  of  over  3,000  students  in  academies  in  Italy, 
shows  that  conduct  is  good  at  eleven,  but  falls  away  down  to 
the  lowest  point  at  fourteen,  and  gradually  rises  until  the 
highest  point  is  reached  at  eighteen. 

We  hesitate  whether  more  to  be  afraid  of  or  alarmed  for 
this  creature,  who  has  become  endowed  with  the  passions 
and  independence  of  manhood,  while  still  a  child  in  foresight 
and  judgment.  He  rushes  now  into  so  many  crazy  plans  and 
harmful  deeds.  This  age — particularly  that  from  twelve  to 
sixteen — is  the  most  critical  and  difficult  to  deal  with  in  all 
childhood.  It  is  because  the  boy  now  becomes  secretive.  He 
neither  can  nor  will  utter  himself,  and  the  very  sensitiveness, 
the  longing  and  overpowering  sense  of  the  new  life,  is  often 
so  concealed  by  inconsistent  and  even  barbarous  behavior. 
tliat  one  quite  loses  both  comprehension  and  patience.  The 
more  difficult  the  task  assigned,  the  more  likely  will  the 
adolescent  youth  undertake  it.  Things  must  not  l)e  made 
too  easy  for  liim  now.  IC  there  is  a  fair  amount  of  wortli 
in  a  25crson,  he  is  willing  to  1)C  considered  ca])able  of  a  dilli- 
cult  task. 

Tlie  Church  and  its  work  should  not  be  made  too  light  for 
the  youth,  nor  should  the  Christian  life  be  presented  as  a 
flowery  ■|)ath.  The  narrow,  stony  road  will  appeal  to  young 
manhood  just  because  it  is  so  ditlieult.  It  ]ias  been  argued, 
and  argued  well,  that  the  scarcity  of  men  in  the  Church  is 
largely  due  to  the  ease  with  which  people  can  enter  its  mem- 


PEIUOJ)  OF  ADOLESCENCE  111 

bership.  The  Christian  path,  iu  its  Christo-centric  character, 
has  now  a  splendid  hold  upon  the  eager  youth,  furnishing 
a  logical,  clear,  doctrinal  system  on  which  to  build.  Now  can 
be  comprehended,  for  the  first  time,  the  meaning  of  the 
Sacrifice  of  Christ,  the  New  Testament  ideas,  the  Atonement, 
and  the  Messianic  Forecast. 

Eitual  and  Adolescence. — Professor  Haslett,  a  Congrega- 
tionalist,  in  his  Pedagogical  Bible  School,  points  out  the 
importance  of  ritual  during  the  pubescent  j^eriod.  Many 
others  have  done  the  same.  There  are  two  periods  in  life 
wlien  ritual  appeals.  First,  in  tlie  Kindergarten  and  Pri- 
mar}^,  ritual  appeals,  because  of  its  poetic  symbolism  and 
teaching.  The  ritual  of  the  younger  school,  therefore,  ouglit 
to  be  expressive  of  deep  meaning,  and  the  children  should 
be  taught  the  meaning  of  each  form  and  act.  The  more 
there  can  be  of  ritual — and  we  are  speaking  of  it  in  its 
broadest  sense  of  action,  and  symbol,  and  form — the  more 
will  tlie  school  and  its  conduct  appeal  to  the  smaller  children. 

But  in  the  Adolescent  period,  ritual  is  desirable  for 
another  reason.  Unconscious  ethical  dualism  is  almost  cer- 
tain to  be  present.  In  The  Boy  Problem,  Forbush  states: 
"Ethical  Dualism,  a  trait  of  semi-development,  and  one  with 
which  we  are  familiar  among  American  negroes,  is  charac- 
teristic of  immaturit}'.  It  is  the  trait  of  the  person  who  has 
not  yet  accepted  the  responsibility  for  his  own  life.  None 
of  us  entirely  shakes  it  off.  Not  only  is  the  Sunday  boy 
different  from  the  Monday  boy,  the  boy  praying  different 
from  the  boy  playing,  the  boy  alone  or  with  his  parents 
or  his  adult  friends  different  from  the  boy  with  his  com- 
rades, but,  as  in  savagery,  the  ethics  of  the  boy  with  his 
"gang"  is  different  from  that  with  other  boys.  It  is  the  old 
clan  ethics.  This  idea  that  loyalty  is  due  only  to  one's  tribe, 
and  that  other  people  are  enemies,  and  other  people's  prop- 
erty is  legitimate  prey,  is  just  the  spirit  whicli  makes  the 


11-2  TlfE  ELE:\rENTS   OF   CHILD   STUDY 

'gang'  dangerous,  and  which  suggests  the  need  of  teaching 
a  universal  sociology,  and  of  transforming  ti)e  clan  alle- 
giance into  a  chivalry  toward  alL  The  clan  is  a  step  higher 
than  individualism;  1  would  recognize  it,  l)ut  1  would  lead 
its  members  to  ])e  knights  rather  than  bandits."' 

This  ethical  dualism  is  a  2)hase  of  that  ))eculiar  self-con- 
sciousness and  desire  for  show,  to  make  an  impression,  at 
this  age.  The  youth  is  particular  that  his  gloves  shall  he 
new  and  si^otless,  but  is  not  so  insistent  that  there  shall  be 
clean  hands  under  the  gloves.  This  enters  into  his  religion, 
and  is  the  exjjlanation  of  the  fact  that  the  ritual  of  this 
period  differs  largely  froiu  the  ritual  of  the  Kindergarten 
and  the  Primary.  The  ritualism  of  the  Kindergarten  and 
I'rimary  Periods  is  the  ritualism  of  the  symbolism,  with 
that  deeper  mystical  meaning  which  apjieals  to  the  very 
young  child.  The  ritual  of  the  Adolescent  is  the  ritual  of 
Show,  "an  outward  and  visible  sign,"  as  it  wei-e,  of  "an  in- 
ward and  spiritual  faith."  The  life  nuiy  not  accord  with 
the  profession,  and  yet  often  the  only  thing  to  hold  the  life 
is  the  profession.  Teachers  and  clergy,  as  well  as  ])arents, 
should  realize  this  condition,  and  be  very  patient  with  the 
inconsistent  lad  or  maiden. 

While  girls  are  more  interested  in  the  ritualistic  and 
symbolic;  boys  enjoy  the  spectacular  jihases  of  the  ritualism 
more.  fJirls  ai'e  more  impressed  with  theii'  meaning  than 
boys.  "Those  (liurches  ihat  ])i-actice  ("ondi'mnlion,  eni'iched 
by  splendid  ritual,  are  in  accord  with  the  real  nature  of 
things,  and  should  be  inlluential  in  arousing  the  (^luirches 
at  large  to  make  ])r()|)cr  ])i'ovision  for  this  critical  stage 
of  life,"  wi'ites  ITaslett,  a  Congregational ist. 

Strangely  and  yet  naturally,  the  adolescent  boy  is  now 
in  a  particulai'ly  dangerous  ])osition,  just  because  of  his 
Ethical  Dualism.  ITe  realizes,  more  or  less  sub-consciously, 
the  inconsistency  of  it  all :  be  has  dropped  his  private  pray- 


rKlllOD  OK  ADOLESCENCE  113 

ci-s.  He  will  not  ackiiowlcd^u  that  lie  lias  dropped  tlieiii, 
and  ii'  you  were  to  ask  him  the  I'rauk  question,  he  would 
almost  certainly  tell  an  untruth.  Save  him  from  temptation 
by  avoiding  such  a  question,  but  lead  him  indirectly  to  a 
renewal  of  his  prayer  life,  and  through  it  to  his  hold  on 
God,  by  putting  prayer  material  in  his  way. 

There  is  a  very  strong  statement  by  Dr.  Butler,  quoted 
from  Professor  See :  "I  know  of  no  better  method  than  that 
of  a  young  teacher  of  boys,  whose  statement  I  condense : — 
One  Aveek  before  a  talk  on  Prayer,  and  l)efore  I  have  an- 
nounced the  subject,  I  hand  each  boy  an  envelope,  say  the 
contents  are  confidential,  and  I  know  he  will  comply,  as  a 
l)ersonal  favor.  In  each  envelope  is  a  note,  saying  that  I 
am  subject  to  certain  temptations,  and  that  I  am  liable  to 
discouragement.  I  request  that,  in  saying  his  evening  pray- 
ers, he  will  mention  me  to  the  Heavenly  Father,  and  will 
continue  this  until  our  next  meeting.  I  add,  that  by  carrying 
out  this  request  he  is  helping  me  more  than  he  can  fully 
understand.  It  is  remarkable  how  the  boys,  aged  from 
fourteen  to  seventeen — a  time  when  many  boys  who  have 
been  in  the  habit  of  daily  prayer  are  gradually  relinquish- 
ing it — respond  to  this  personal  request.  Without  asking,  I 
discern  by  the  warmth  of  their  greeting,  or  by  some  remark, 
that  they  are  responding  to  what  is,  in  most  cases,  an  entirely 
new  conce})tion  of  private  prayer — that  of  praying  for  some- 
one outside  of  their  own  family.  In  some  cases,  boys  who 
have  already  discontinued  daily  prayers,  are  led  to  resume 
them.  When  the  day  comes  for  the  talk  on  Prayer,  all  are 
better  prepared  to  listen  and  learn  from  it  w^hat  I  am  able 
to  offer.  As  I  have  not  neglected  to  bear  them  in  mind  daily, 
a  sympathy  springs  up  between  us  which  was  not  apparent 
l)efore.     A  channel  to  the  boy's  soul  has  opened." 

Another  method  would  be  simply  handing  each  of  the 
older  l)oys  and  girls — from  twelve  or  thirteen  years  up  in 


114  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIllIJ)   STUDY 

the  ►Sunday  School  Senior  grades — prayer  cards  ol'  the  Graded 
Praj^er  Card  series  of  the  Commission — not  with  the  pre- 
sumption or  intimation  even,  that  they  are  not  saying  their 
prayers,  but  with  the  suggestion  that  perhaps  they  might 
find  some  of  these  prayers  usefuh  And  perhaps  you  might 
obtain  a  pledge  from  them  to  make  use  of  the  prayers  on 
the  prayer  card.  In  this  way  you  will  not  subject  them  to 
loss  of  their  self-esteem  by  a  public  avowal  of  retrogression, 
or  lay  them  open  to  the  temptation  to  tell  an  untruth  to  hide 
the  conditions.  And  this  practical  Christianity  is  more  im- 
portant and  significant  than  we  realize.  It  lies  in  the  very 
jicart  of  the  future  of  our  nation. 

As  the  plant  wizard  Burbank  has  said :  "The  wave  of 
public  dishonesty  wliicli  seems  sweeping  over  this  country 
is  chiefly  due  to  a  lack  of  proper  training — breeding,  if  you 
will — in  the  formative  years  of  life.  .■  .  .  The  child  is  the 
purest,  truest  thing  in  the  world.  Its  life  is  stainless,  open 
to  receive  all  impressions,  just  as  is  the  life  of  tlie  plant, 
only  far  more  pliant  and  responsive  to  influences,  and  to 
influences  to  which  no  plant  is  capable  of  being  responsive." 

QUESTIONS   FOR   STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION. 

1.  Wliat  is  Hughlings-Jackson  Theory,  and  liow  does  it  aflVct  the 

Adolescent  Period? 

2.  Wliat  are  the  Three  Stages  of  this  Period? 

3.  What  arc  the  signs  of  the  First  Stage? 

4.  What  opportunity  do  the  Three  Stages  ofTer? 

5.  How  does  the  child  regard  religion  in  Adolescence? 

6.  Explain  the  "Gang  Ago,"  and  tell  fully  how  it  a  fleets  Education. 

7.  What  methods  can  be  used  best  for  Classes  and  Clubs  under  this 
instinct? 

8.  What  is  Conscience? 

9.  How  can  we  help  its  development  at  this  time? 

10.    What    is    the    "Enlightenment,"    and    what    does    it    mean    for 
Religion  ? 


PERIOD  OF  ADOLESCENCE  115 

11.  What  dangers  arise  from  the  development  of  Will  at  Adolescence? 

12.  How  can  we  best  present  the  Cause  of  Christ? 

13.  How  does  Ritual  appeal? 

14.  How  does  the  Ritualistic  appeal  differently  to  boys  and  girls? 

15.  What  is  said  on  the  Prayer  Life  of  Adolescent  youth,  especially 
the  boy,  and  what  can  we  best  do  for  him  ? 


SYLLABUS  OF  CHAPTER  VIII. 

LATER   ADOLESCENCE 

SUGGESTED  READING:— The  rsYciioLOGY  of  Religion,  Slarl)uck. 

SUMMARY. 

Later  Adolescence. — Every  man  is  his  own  World-builder.  Vie\v-of- 
the-World  is  due  to  "apperceptive  basis,"  through  Education 
and  Experience. 

Adult  Age. — Little  room  for  Education,  as  Character-building,  now 
remains.  Only  Intellectual  Equipment  hereafter  possible.  Busi- 
ness and  Personal  Mannerisms  (the  "set"  of  Life)  are  formed 
by  this  time.  Senescent  Progress  has  brought  Mental  Stability. 
Open-mindedness,  so  hard  to  cultivate,  much  needed  now  to  save 
the  Adult  from  stagnation  and  recrudescence. 

Relation  of  Mind  and  Body. — Important,  for  we  cannot  educate  Mind 
without  Sound  Body.  Teachers  are  concerned  with  the  entire 
child.  Health,  Home,  Companions,  Exercise,  Morals,  Hygiene, 
Tenements,  etc.  Y^et  one  out  of  fifteen  is  defective.  Important 
to  watch  for  Eye  and  Ear  Defects. 

Types  of  Children. — Helpful  to  Guide  us.  Note  Growth  and  Develop- 
ment Types;  Sex  Types,  Motor  and  Sensory  Types,  etc. 

Temperament. — Precise  nature  unknown.  Probably  botli  Phjsiological 
and  Psychological.  Seldom  find  pure  Temperament.  All  mixed. 
General  divisions  are:  1.  Sanguine,  2.  Phlegmatic,  3.  Nervous, 
4.  Melancholy. 

Sanguine  usually  Blond,  Quick  Excitement,  Small  After-EIIect. 
Phlegmatic  usually  Blond,  Small  Excitement,  Small  After-EU'ect. 
Nervous  usually  Brunette,  Great  Excitement,  Great  After-Effect. 
Melancholy   usually   Brunette,    Small    Excitement,    Great   After- 

Effect. 
Races   differ   in   Temperament.      Southern    Impulsive;    Norlliern 
Restrained. 

Siitjf/eslioiis. — Koc])  a  Development  Note-Book,  a  Page  for  the  Type, 
Temperament,  diowtli,  and  Progress  of  Each  Pupil. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

LATER   ADOLESCENCE 

Fourth   Period,   Later  Adolescence,  Age  of  Decision,   Philosopiilc 
Insight,  18  to  25. 

Now  in  the  after-peace  of  the  budding  manhood,  with 
faith  and  doubts  at  rest;  with  Will  and  Action  in  power; 
new  thoughts  of  the  permanence  of  life  come  to  the  youth — 
the  dominance  of  law,  the  grasp  of  the  broad  View-of-the- 
world,  which  PJiilosopMc  Insight  now  unfolds.  Family  life 
appeals  to  him.  Habits  of  business  are  now  formed.  The 
typical  aspects  and  mannerisms,  peculiar  to  each  profession, 
as  carpenter,  tradesman,  minister,  artist,  etc.,  are  appearing. 
The  final  turns  and  twists  of  life  are  now  well-nigh  unalter- 
able, set  and  fixed  to  the  limit  of  the  grave. 

The  late  Professor  Davidson  has  said  that  every  man  is 
his  own  world-builder.  No  two  men  see  the  world  alike. 
Tlie  world  is  the  same  objectively,  but  your  view-of-the-world 
is  not  my  view-of-the-world,  l)ecause  your  "apperceptive 
basis" — tliat  is,  the  ideas  which  you  have  accumulated,  tlie 
education  that  you  have  passed  through,  the  environment 
which  has  been  your  tutor — have  not  been  the  same  as  mine. 
If  your  view-of-the-world  were  the  same  as  my  view-of-the- 
world,  your  education  and  your  life  would  have  been  the 
same  as  mine.  Probably  your  very  face  would  look  like  mine ; 
but  as  your  education  has  differed,  your  view-of-the-world. 
that  is,  your  apperception  of  it,  necessarily  differs  from  mine. 
And  so  whatever  view-of-the-world,  whatever  philosophy  of 
life  the  youth  in  later  adolescence  may  have  reached,  it  is 


118  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

his  own  philosophy,  his  own  view-of-the-workl.  Good  or 
bad  to  him,  the  world  is  as  he  sees  it  after  the  great  recon- 
struction period.  We  are  responsible  for  the  presentation  of 
the  world  to  him,  and,  in  a  sense,  responsible  also  for  the 
groundwork  that  he  possesses  to  appreciate  the  world. 
Adult  Age,  Manhood  and  Womanhood,  25  and  onward. 

Little  room  for  much  education,  as  Character-building  and 
Habit-forming  factors,  now  remains.  Henceforth  it  can  be 
but  an  intellectual  equipment.  It  is  not  likely  to  affect  life 
very  extensively,  though  some  gain  and  advance,  or  retrogres- 
sion, may  result.  Remember  in  dealing  with  adults  that, 
wliatever  their  idiosyncracies  may  be,  you  cannot  alter  them 
either  by  advice  or  complaint.  You  may  change  particular 
actions,  but  seldom  the  general  trend.  The  dam  may  block 
the  stream,  but  never  curb  the  spring.  The  young  lady 
who  says,  "I  will  marry  John  in  order  to  reform  him,"  had 
better  reform  him  before  she  marries  him,  or  she  almost 
certainly  will  not  succeed.  It  is  doubtful  whether  she  will 
succeed  very  much  even  before  marriage.  Occupations  always 
react  on  life,  and  men  become  circumscribed  in  their  own 
ruts.  You  may  broaden;  but  not  divert  them.  Moral  im- 
provement, especially  with  strong  will-power,  may  take  place ; 
but  only  by  gradual  substitution  of  ncAV  habits,  with  the  old 
ones  growing  deeper  and  harder  each  year.  It  takes  upheavals 
to  alter  lives  then. 
The  Limitations  of  Progress. 

Professor  Minot  has  pointed  out  in  an  almost  dishearten- 
ing manner,  the  senescent  progress  which  brings  about  a 
mental  stability;  for,  while  most  men  are  not  alike,  and  the 
rule  will  not  hold  absolutely  true,  the  great  majority  of  men 
lose  their  power  of  learning  at  about  twenty-five  years  of  age. 
Few  men  after  twenty-five  are  able  to  learn  much.  They  who 
cannot,  become  laborers,  mechanics,  and  lower  clerks.  It  is 
only  by  keeping  tlie  brain  as  it  wore  in  a  state  of  infancy, 


LATER  ADOLESCENCE 


119 


in  a  state  of  plasticity  and  progress  by  keeping  alive  a  con- 
tinual assimilation  and  association  of  new  ideas;  only  by  de- 
liberately forcing  oneself  to  be  open-minded,  rather  than  con- 
servative, that  we  can  avoid  this  mental  stagnation. 

Most  men  become  mentally  hazy  after  a  certain  age,  and 
would  rather  jog  along  in  the  old  way  than  be  disturbed  by 
the  mental  readjustment  necessary  to  the  acceptance  of  hew 
ideas,  and  consequently  open  to  intellectual  progress.  One  of 
the  most  important  things  should  be  to  make  the  later  ado- 
lescent youth  realize  what  will  surely  come,  unless  he  delib- 
erately sets  his  face  and  his  mind  continually,  and  with  keen 
receptiveness — open-mindedness  is  the  best  term,  after  all — 
to  receive  new  ideas. 

And  our  American  people  are  becoming  more  and  more 
to-day  an  open-minded  people.  Old  men  with  gray  hairs  are 
oft-times  as  eager  for  the  new  as  are  the  most  enthusiastic 
of  adolescent  youths.  The  marvellous  advances  of  this  cen- 
tury in  scientific  discoveries,  in  mechanical  inventions,  etc., 
have  revolutionized  the  world.  It  is  one  of  the  most  encourag- 
ing of  progressive  steps  in  the  evolution  of  ideal  humanity. 
It  also  shows  us  how  important  is  the  formative  period, 
theoretically  before  the  age  of  twenty-five,  practically  before 
the  age  of  fifteen.  Upon  it,  and  upon  our  work  for  it,  with 
growing  boys  and  girls,  depends  the  future  of  humankind, 
as  well  as  the  future  destiny  of  our  country  and  this  world. 


Summary   of  the   Chief   Characteristics   of   Adolescence. 


Physical. 

Period  of  rapid  growth. 
Heart  increases  in  size. 
Larnyx  and  lungs  enlarge. 
Large  arteries  increase. 
Muscles  grow  rapidly. 
Vocal  cords  elongate. 
Shoulders  broaden  out. 
Senses  strengthened. 


Mental  and  Spiritual. 

Assertion  of  selfhood,  variously 
described  as  self-assertion, 
self-sufficiency,  self-feeling, 
and  braggadocio.  Egoism  de- 
veloping later  into  altruism. 

Social  organization  with  same 
sex.  Also  known  as  "gang 
instinct." 


120 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 


Circulation  becomes  more  rapid. 

Skin  becomes  more  sensitive. 

Voice  deepens. 

Needs  more  sleep  and  food. 

The  beard  grows. 

Brain  stops  growing  by  15. 

Changes  peculiar  to  male. 

Period  of  least  mortality. 


Team  work  in  games. 
Kostlcssncss  of  mind, 
l^'nthusiasm  in  sports. 
Appearance   of    lighting    instinct. 
Full  energy. 
Secretiveness  toward  parents  and 

others. 
Feeling  of  loneliness. 
Desire  for  sympathy. 
Wandering  instinct. 
Longing     for     the     remote     and 

strange. 
Possessed  by  Ideals. 
Desire  for  quick  results. 
Bashful  with  other  sex. 
Time  of  liero  worship. 


Tabular   Summary    of    Development   Traits    during    Adolescence. 

YOUTH  Oil  ADOLESCENCE— 12-18. 

12-15 — Moral  Crisis. 
15-18— Ideality. 


Physical  Ciiaracteuistics. 

Awkwardness. 

Less  Active. 

Adventure. 

Constructiveness. 

Recklessness. 

Sex-attracted. 

Bodily  Changes. 


Mental  Characteristics. 

Diplomatic. 
Confidence. 
Self-conscious. 
"(Jang"  or  "Set"  Age. 
IMiilosophic  Ago. 
Imitates  Noble  Deeds. 
Ideals. 

"Chum"  Friendships. 
Abstract  Age. 
History  Age. 
Systematization. 
Conscience  Set. 
Age  of  Doubts. 
Storm  and  Stress. 
Desire  for  Ritual. 
Etliical  Dualism. 
Conversion  Crisis. 
Sex  Dangers. 
On  "Fool's  Hill." 


LATER  ADOLESCENCE  121 

Relation  Between  Mind  and  Body. 

IMan  is  a  unit,  altlunigli  pospcsscd  of  Body,  IMind,  and 
Spirit;  and,  in  his  development,  all  three  should  he  trained 
and  exercised  in  harmonious  proportion  to  each  other;  for 
there  is  a  most  intimate  interdependence  between  the  three. 
It  will  not  do  to  educate  the  Mind  for  the  sake  of  the  Spirit's 
welfare,  and  neglect  the  Body;  for  the  Body  affects  strongly 
both  the  Mind  and  the  Spirit.  '"Hima  Mens  in  Corpore  t>ano," 
is  more  supreme  than  ever  to-day,  in  this  age  of  Strenuous 
Muscular  Christianity. 

Dr.  "Warner,  in  his  Study  of  CiriLDKEN,  illustrates  the 
common  types  of  degenerate  or  feeble  bodies,  which  create 
feeble  minds.  Encourage  all  healthy,  manly  exercises  and 
sports,  for  they  are  ennobling  and  uplifting.  Care  of  the 
body,  fresh  air,  cleanliness,  sufficient  sleep,  and  proper  propor- 
tion of  food,  are  of  more  influence  than  sermons  in  securing 
alertness  of  attention,  in  developing  habits  of  purity  of 
thought  and  of  action,  and  in  the  avoidance  of  the  evils  of 
impurity,  use  of  alcohol  and  tobacco,  and  enervation  of  brain 
and  body. 

Enfeebled  bodies  result  in  Malnutrition,  Stuma,  even  In- 
sanity; and  always  cause  listlessness,  inattention,  poor  reason- 
ing, and  loss  of  memory.  It  is  certainly  fully  within  the 
province  of  the  Sunday  School  Teacher  to  take  an  interest  in 
the  physical  condition  of  the  children;  visiting  their  homes, 
advising  and  correcting  injurious  conditions,  whenever  pos- 
sible. The  physical  culture  and  out-door  games  of  the  present 
generation  have  done  much  to  improve  our  American  Youth, 
and  we  are  already  beholding  a  much  taller  and  stronger  race. 
Yet  tenement  homes,  rapid  living,  stimulating  foods,  and  late 
hours  are  producing  a  harvest  of  nervous,  fidgety,  restless, 
over-active,  over-sensitive  or  under-active,  feeble-minded  chil- 
dren.    It  is  estimated  that  one  out  of  every  fifteen  children 


122  THE  ELEMENTS   OF  CHILD  STUDY 

from  the  tenements  will  be  "defective"  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent. 

In  Sunday  Schools,  special  classes  of  such  peculiar  chil- 
dren should  be  formed,  in  which  they  are  dealt  with  apart  by 
themselves,  under  particularly  qualified  teachers.  A  careful 
distinction  should  be  noted,  however,  between  tliese  abnormal 
conditions  and  (a)  the  active  restlessness  of  rapidly  growing 
childhood,  which  is  seen  previous  to  puberty;  (&)  awkward- 
ness and  shy  sensitiveness  of  puberty;  {c)  giggling,  self-con- 
scious, seemingly  silly  period  of  girlhood  in  the  'teens.  All 
of  these  periods  are  transitory,  and  are  certain  to  be  outgrown. 
It  would  be  well  for  every  teacher  to  glance  at  the  illustra- 
tions in  Warner's  book,  in  order  to  recognize  the  most  com- 
mon types  of  abnormal  children. 

Beyond  abnormal  conditions,  temporary  or  chronic  illness, 
indigestion,  disturbance  of  life,  eye-strain  causing  headaches, 
and  a  number  of  common  physical  disturbances  needing  the 
physician  rather  than  the  priest,  medicine  rather  than  ser- 
mons, are  frequently  the  fruitful  causes  of  ill-temper  and  gen- 
eral wickedness.  It  is  beginning  to  be  recognized  to-day  that 
the  Day  School  is  responsible  for  the  physical  condition  of  the 
children,  and  compulsory  treatment  for  trachoma  (granular 
eyelids),  pink-eye,  glasses,  adenoid  growths  in  the  nose  and 
throat,  is  the  rule  in  our  large  cities.  The  Sunday  School 
teacher  is  equally  responsible,  and  lier  duties  do  not  end  with 
tlie  teaching  of  the  Sunday  School  lessons.  The  child  who 
sits  forward  with  staring  eyes  and  holds  tlic  book  too  close 
in  reading,  probably  needs  glasses,  of  which  no  one  has 
thought.  A  frank  talk  with  the  parents  is  the  part  of  the 
earnest  teacher. 

The  inattentive  child  may  be  "deaf  in  one  ear  and  liard 
of  hearing  in  the  other,"  and  middle  ear  disease  that  begins 
in  youtli  is  a  serious  affection.  Nervous  children  should  have 
more  rest  and  food  and  sleep.     Tlie  Sunday  School  teacher 


LATER  ADOLESCENCE  123 

should  be  concerned  with  tlie  wliole  child  and  be  interested  in 
his  entire  development  and  sound  health  of  body,  as  well  as 
of  mind  and  soul. 

In  the  long  run,  there  will  scarcely  be  a  class  of  ten  schol- 
ars witliout  one  child,  at  least,  who  has  defects  of  vision  or  of 
hearing,  which  impair  his  power  of  learning;  and  it  is  found 
by  long  experience  and  testing  in  Day  Schools  that  the  schol- 
ars are  frequently  entirely  unaware  of  their  physical  condi- 
tion. Pupils  have  been  found  among  college  students  who  are 
totally  deaf  in  one  ear,  or  blind  in  one  eye,  without  being  in 
the  least  aware  of  it.  As  we  have  said  before,  we  are  con- 
cerned as  teachers  with  the  whole  child,  and  nothing  in  that 
child's  life  should  fail  to  interest  us.  Even  the  question  of 
the  child's  hours  for  sleep,  and  time  for  study,  and  feeding, 
and  clothing,  and  companions,  are  of  vital  concern  to  us  as 
teachers.  All  our  good  words  may  be  entirely  vitiated  by 
untoward  conditions  in  the  home. 
Types  of  Children. 

We  all  recognize  that  Classes  of  any  line  of  objects  pre- 
sent certain  similar  characteristics,  and  that  all  individuals 
in  each  class  have  differences,  or  peculiarities,  that  distin- 
guish or  differentiate  them  from  others  in  the  same  class. 
]\Ien,  for  instance,  are  a  type.  They  have  many  similarities. 
Yet  each  differs  from  every  other  man.  In  a  bushel  of  wheat 
all  grains  look  alike.    Yet  all,  microscopically,  differ. 

In  tlie  human  family  we  see  manifold  types.  There  are 
types  of  Eace.  All  Chinese  look  alike  to  those  who  do  not 
know  them.  Yet  no  Chinese  boy  mistakes  some  stranger  for 
his  father.  Among  Americans,  we  see  Yankees,  Southerners, 
Westerners,  Cowboys;  we  have  types  of  bankers,  salesmen, 
clerks,  doctors,  bookmakers,  artists,  carpenters,  etc.,  each  dif- 
fering most  conspicuously  from  the  other  types.  (See  Gal- 
ton's  Hereditary  Genius.)  We  have  age  types,  by  which 
one  age  of  civilization  differs  from  all  its  predecessors  and 


124  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

followers  (see  Kidd's  Social  Evolution)  ;  we  have  dillVrcnt 
religions  types  of  many  and  various  forms;  we  liave  marked 
temperamental  tyjDes^,  as  quick,  slow,  defective,  normal,  con- 
crete, abstract,  auditory,  etc. ;  we  have  growth  and  develop- 
ment types,  wliicli  are  wliat  particularly  concern  us  here. 
Within  the  type  much  difference  exists.  Learn  the  tyi)e  of 
childhood,  and  then  master  the  individual  dilJerences  or  idio- 
syncracies  within  it.  A  hundred  babies  seem  alike,  in  tlie 
type  of  Infancy.    Yet  no  mother  fails  to  know  her  own. 

Sex-Differences 

In  capacities  no  great  differences  between  the  male  and 
female  type  have  been  demonstrated.  The  most  marked  is  the 
female  superiority  in  the  perceptive  and  retentive  capacities; 
girls,  for  instance,  notice  small  details,  remember  lists,  and 
spell  better  than  boys. 

Although  the  male  and  female  types  are  closely  alike  in 
intellectual  capacities,  there  is  an  important  difference  in  the 
deviations  from  the  type  in  the  two  cases,  namely,  that  the 
males  deviate  more.  The  highest  males  in  any  quality  are 
more  gifted  than  any  of  the  women.  Thus,  though  girls  in 
general  rank  as  high,  or  higher,  than  boys  in  high  school  and 
college,  they  less  often  lead  the  class ;  thus  there  are  far  more 
eminent  intellects  among  men  than  among  women,  and  also 
twice  as  many  idiots. 

Motor  and  Sensory  Types. 

Professor  Adams  remarks  :  "(a)  ]\l()t()r  children  are  those 
that  respond  very  readily  to  any  outside  influence,  and  this 
response  takes  the  form  of  immediate  action.  They  are  quick. 
eager,  alert.  They  waste  no  time  in  making  up  theii-  minds, 
and  immediately  act  upon  whatever  conclusion  they  ai'rive  at. 
They  are  quick  in  temper  as  in  intellect.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  lack  perseverance.  They  learn  quickly,  but  do  not  retain 
particularly  well  what  they  have  learnt.     As  a  compensation, 


LATER  ADOLESCENCE  125 

they  do  not  retain  anger  long,  and  are  generally  more  for- 
giving than  sensory  children.  The  defects  of  the  motor  child 
are  hastiness  in  forming  judgments — he  jumps  at  conclu- 
sions— and  a  certain  fickleness,  which,  however,  does  not  pre- 
vent him  from  being  usually  rather  attractive. 

"(&)  Sensory  children  are  slower  in  responding  to  any 
stimulus.  They  receive  all  manner  of  impressions,  and  make 
no  sign.  They  are  passive  as  compared  with  the  motors,  but 
their  minds  are  active  enough,  and  their  conclusions  are  often 
sounder  than  those  so  speedily  reached  by  the  motors.  The 
difference  between  the  two  temperaments  is  most  marked  in 
the  greater  tenacity  of  the  sensory  children.  Their  weakness 
lies  in  a  certain  timidity,  born  of  the  desire  to  see  all  sides 
of  a  question  before  coming  to  a  decision.  The  resulting  slow- 
ness and  hesitation  render  sensory  children  less  attractive  to 
the  ordinary  adult,  and  to  the  superficial  teacher,  who  desires 
immediate  results.  But  the  thoughtful  teacher,  who  studies 
and  understands  child  nature,  finds  that,  on  the  whole,  his 
best  work  can  be  done  with  the  less  immediately  responsive 
children.  Girls  have  usually  the  motor  temperament,  and 
boys  the  sensor3^  But  to  apply  this  distinction  without  refer- 
ence to  the  individuals  of  a  given  class  would  be  very  unwise." 
Temperament. 

The  influence  of  Temperament  on  Education,  and  there- 
fore on  Sunday  School  teaching,  is  not  to  be  neglected.  While 
seldom  will  absolutely  pure  temperaments  be  found,  there 
are  certain  definite  marks  or  types  of  Temperaments  which 
can  be  observed,  and  of  which  use  can  be  made  all  through 
our  contact  with  children. 

Temperament  seems  to  lie  in  a  domain  intermediate  be- 
tween Physiognomy  and  Physiological  Psychology.  It  is  not 
a  psychological  notion,  but  a  medical  one.  The  average 
Psychologist  is  afraid  of  it  because  it  seems  to  him  to  trench 
too  much  upon  Phrenology,  though  Professors  Wundt  and 


12G  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Tichnor  make  note  of  its  importance,  placing  it  after  the 
Emotions.  The  old  Greeks  originated  the  notion,  Galen  and 
Hippocrates  exploited  it.  They  saw  a  fourfold  relationship 
between  mind  and  body,  whereby  the  same  disease,  for  in- 
stance, affected  variously  differing  temperaments.  The  best 
modern  division  is:  1,  Sanguine;  2,  Bilious;  3,  Lymphatic; 
4,  Nervous.  Tlie  theory  is,  however,  the  same,  that  some 
physical  condition  of  the  body  influences  and  controls  the 
feelings. 

There  are  very  few  examples  of  unmixed  Temperaments, 
and  it  is  rare  to  find  the  pure  type.  The  usual  mode  is  to 
single  out  the  Nervous  Type  and  set  it  aside.  This  type  is 
rapidly  increasing  in  proportion  in  our  present  period  age. 
Observation  and  experience  are  the  main  aids  at  diagnosis. 
Few  books  are  found  in  English,  though  plenty  in  French, 
and  a  few  in  German. 

Good  Physiognomies  (Fowler  and  Wells,  etc.)  give  some 
treatment  of  it  and  types  of  faces;  and  Dr.  Warner  in  his 
Study  of  Children  reproduces  some  pictures  of  types.  Prac- 
tically, although  it  is  obscure,  it  concerns  our  whole  treatment 
and  attitude  of  behavior  towards  Children.  The  same  mode 
of  discipline  will  call  out  vastly  dissimilar  results  in  differing 
persons.  In  one  we  arouse  regret;  in  another  reform  is 
wrought;  in  a  third,  naught  but  stubborn  rebellion  and  oppo- 
sition respond  to  our  dealings.  Parents  cannot  define  it;  but 
they  see  its  effects  and  say :  "I  have  to  treat  this  child  differ- 
ently from  the  other  one." 

The  precise  limitations  and  differences  of  the  several  kinds 
of  temperament  are  so  important  that  we  would  advise  every 
teacher  to  read  carefully  the  chapters  upon  this  subject  in 
Mrs.  Birney's  Childhood,  as  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
in  the  Sunday  School  and  home. 

According  to  Thorndikc : — ''The  Combination  of  slowness 
and  weakness  makes  the  lethargic  temperament;  the  combina- 


LATER  ADOLESCENCE  127 

tion  of  intensity  and  narrowness  makes  the  fanatic;  the  com- 
bination of  weakness  and  breadth  is  often  the  basis  of  what 
we  term  superficiality.  Of  the  traditional  four  temperaments, 
the  sanguine  approximates  closely  to  the  combination,  quick- 
weak-broad;  the  choloric  approximates  closely  to  the  com- 
bination, quick-intense-narrow;  the  phlegmatic  is,  of  course, 
slow;  the  melancholic  or  sentimental  is  weak,  and  commonly 
somewhat  narrow  and  slow.  The  traditional  temperaments 
emphasize  certain  emotional  differences,  the  phlegmatic  being 
especially  hard,  and  the  melancholic  or  sentimental  especially 
easy  to  excite  emotionally," 

Here  are  a  few  suggestions  given  l)y  Mrs.  Birney:  "TJie 
sanguine  temperament,  according  to  one  authority,  is  pro- 
claimed by  a  tolerable  consistency  of  flesh,  moderate  plump- 
ness, light  or  chestnut  hair,  great  activity  of  the  arterial  sys- 
tem, a  strong,  full  and  frequent  pulse,  and  an  animated  coun- 
tenance. Persons  thus  constituted  are  easily  affected  by  exter- 
nal impressions,  and  possess  greater  energy  than  those  of  the 
phlegmatic  temperament. 

''The  pliJegmatic  temperament  is  indicated  by  a  pale,  white 
skin,  fair  hair,  roundness  of  form,  and  repletion  of  cellular 
tissue.  The  flesh  is  soft,  the  vital  actions  are  languid.  All 
indicate  slowness  and  weakness  in  tlie  vegetative,  effective. 
and  intellectual  functions. 

"The  external  signs  of  the  nervous  temperament  are  fine, 
thin  hair,  delicate  health,  more  or  less  emaciation  and  small- 
ness  of  the  muscles,  rapidity  in  the  muscular  actions,  vivacity 
in  the  sensations.  The  nervous  system  in  the  individuals  so 
constituted  preponderates  greatly,  and  they  ex]iil)it  extreme 
nervous  sensibility. 

"TJie  melancholy  temperament  is  characterized  by  black 
hair,  a  dark  yellowish  or  brownisli  skin,  black  eyes,  moderately 
full  but  firm  muscles,  and  harshly  expressed  form.  Those 
endowed  with  this  constitution  have  a  decided  expression  of 


128  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

countenance.    They  manifest  great  general  activity  and  func- 
tional energy. 

"Children  of  sanguine  and  nervous  temperaments  are  very 
receptive,  manifesting  in  their  mentality  the  same  sensibility, 
which  is  characteristic  of  their  physical  organism.  They  are 
easily  guided  by  suggestion,  and  parents  who  liave  mastered 
this  potent  law  are  not  only  equal  to  emergencies,  but  are 
much  more  sure  of  the  obedience,  affection,  and  confidence 
of  their  children  than  the  parents  who  mistakenly  force  issues 
with  their  children,  and  who  expect  to  find  in  them  such  self- 
control  and  reasoning  powers  as  they  themselves  do  not 
possess, 

"The  child  of  nervous  temperament  is  apt  to  be  timid,  and 
his  fears  of  all  kinds  should  be  tenderly  dealt  with.  The  child 
of  nervous  or  sanguine  temperament,  who  has  what  is  termed 
'Tantrum^,'  should  be  left  alone,  the  mother  or  nurse  with- 
drawing to  an  adjoining  room  when  their  preventive  measures 
have  failed. 

"The  child  of  phlegmatic  temperament  is  slow,  mentally 
and  physically.  He  takes  life  easy,  largely  because  of  his  lack 
of  sensibility.  While  children  of  sanguine  and  nervous  tem- 
peraments should  lead  quiet,  regular  lives,  free  from  mental 
or  physical  strain  or  excitement,  the  phlegmatic  child  needs 
stimulation,  and  he  is  positively  benefited  by  pleasureable  ex- 
citement that  would  be  harmful  in  either  of  the  two  cases." 

Temperament  and  Christianity. 

Temperament  has  exerted  a  great  influence  on  the  history 
of  Christianity,  and  it  would  be  suggestive  to  read  what  Pro- 
fessor Haslett,  in  his  Pedagogical  Bible  School,  has  said 
regarding  the  stages  and  phases  of  Temperament  which  have 
influenced  the  world,  and  produced  tJio  shiinioful  (ItH'ds  of 
Christianity. — Haslett,  pp.  2'?3/f. 


LATER  ADOLESCENCE  129 

A  Working  Table  of  Temperament. 

The  following  tabic  will  help  greatly  in  deciding  how  to 
deal  with  temperament,  only  remembering  that  it  is  seldom 
that  we  find  a  pure  or  unmixed  temperament. 

EXCITABILITY.      AFTER-EFFECT. 

Sanguine — Blond Great  Small 

Phlegmatic— Blond Small  Small 

Nervous — Brunette Great  Great 

Melancholy — Brunette Small  Groat 

Different  races  have  diiferent  characteristics,  or  different 
temperaments.  The  Southern  race  are  impulsive,  the  san- 
guine temperament.  The  Northern  races  are  nervous.  The 
English  are  phlegmatic.  No  race  is  absolutely  pure  to-day. 
The  English  language  is  not  a  pure  language,  but  is  a  mix- 
ture, or  polyglot;  so  the  probability  is  that  no  person  has 
absolutely  pure  temperament,  and  any  combination  of  two 
or  of  all  four  may  be  found.  That  is  what  makes  tempera- 
ments so  hard  to  distinguish.  It  would  be  of  great  service 
for  all  teachers  to  read  the  subject  of  Temperament  as  treated 
in  Eeligious  Education,  heretofore  mentioned. 

A  Suggestion  to  Teachers. 

Look  for  these  types  and  combinations  in  your  classes. 
Make  up  a  note-book,  write  the  child's  name  at  the  top  of 
the  page,  and  watch  his  development  for  three  months.  Keep 
notes  of  your  treatment  of  him,  and  the  result.  The  very 
fact  that  you  are  keeping  biographical  notes  makes  you  inter- 
ested as  never  before,  and  will  be  far  more  valuable  than  many 
a  course  in  child  study;  for  you  are  learning  to  engage  in 
child  study  for  yourself.  Compare  the  children  tempera- 
mentally and  according  to  the  stages  of  their  development, 
and  you  will  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  material  with  which 
YOU  have  to  deal  not  learned  in  books  or  schools. 


130 


Till']  KLKMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 


Tabular  Summary  of  All   Developmental  Traits   (i.e.,  Instincts  to 


be  trained  into   Habits): 


Pkihary  Age, 
1-6. 
1-3,  Instinct 
3-6,  Impulse 


Childhood, 
6-12. 
6-9,  Imitation 
9-12,  Habit 


Youth   or  Adoles- 
cence, 12-18. 
12-15,  Moral  Crisis. 
15-18,  Ideality. 


Physical  Characteristics. 


Restlessness 

Activity 

Savagery 

Symbolic  Play 

Timidity 

Sex-unconsciousness 


Less  Restlessness 

Still  Active 

Truancy 

Desire  for  Reality 

Daring  Courage 

Sex-repellance 


Awkwardness 

Less  Active 

Adventure 

Constructiveness 

Recklessness 

Sex-Attraction 

Bodily  Changes 


Mental   Charactekkstics. 


Frankness 

Faith  and  Trust 

Self-unconscious 

Dependent 

Imagination  Age 

Imitates  Parents 

No  Time  Thought 

Egoistic  Feelings 

Concrete 

Story  Age 

Curiosity 

No  Conscience 

Believes  Everything 


Shyness 
In dependence 
Indifferent 
Group  Age 
Memory  Age 
Imitates  Companions 
Lives  in  To-day 
Desire  for  Affection 
Hero  Age 
Biography  Age 
Collecting  Instinct 
Conscience  Rising 
Demands  Reality 


Diplomatic 
Confidence 
Self-conscious 
'"Gang"  or  "Sot"  Age 
Philosophic  Age 
Imitates  Noble  Deeds 
Ideals 

"Chum"  Friendships 
Abstract  Age 
History  Age 
Systematization 
Conscience  Set 
Age  of  Doubts 
Storm  and  Stress 
Desire  for  Ritual 
Ethical  Dualism 
Conversion  Crisis 
Sex  Dangers 
On  "Fool's  Hill" 


QUESTIONS   FOR  STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  "every  man  is  his  own  world-builder"? 

2.  How  do  we  gain  our  View-of-the-World? 

3.  Why  is  Adult  Age  the  "Fixing"  period? 

4.  What  is  the  "Set"  of  life? 

5.  Why  is  the  Teacher  to  be  concerned  with  the  Body  as  well  as 

the  Mind  of  her  pupils? 


LATER  ADOLESCENCE  *        131 

6.  In  what  definite  tilings  is  slie  to  take  special  concern? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  Types  of  children,  and  how  docs  the  study  of 

Types  help  the  teacher? 

8.  What  is   Temperament,   and   what   arc   the   names   of   the   chief 

Temperaments? 

9.  Give  the  table  explaining  the  characteristics  of  each   Tempera- 

ment, and  show  how  it  can  be  made  of  use  in  Education. 
10.    What  suggestions  are  given  as  to  the  record  of  life's  development? 


.SYLLAIUI8   OF   ClIAl'TER  IX. 

GRADING   THE    SUNDAY    SCHOOL,   THE    PRINCIPLES 
OF   A   CURRICULUM 

SUGGESTED  READING:  — 

The  Sunday  School  of  To-day,  timitli. 

The  Churchman's  Manual  of  Methods  in  the  Sunday  School, 

Butler. 
The  Organized  Sunday  School,  Axlell. 
The  Outline  of  a  Bible  School  Curriculum,  Pease. 
The  Graded  Sunday  School  in  Principle  and  Practice.  Meyer. 
The  Modern  Sunday  School,  Cope. 

SUMMARY. 

A  Graded  Sunday  School  is  one  in  which  the  Subject-Flatter,  as  well 
as  the  Method  of  Presenting  it,  is  Graded  in  Definite  Courses, 
adapted  to  the  Personal  Needs  and  Interests  of  Each  Age  of 
Cliild-Developnient. 

The  Joint  Commission  of  the  General  Convention  of  the  Chureli 
recognizes  tlie  Laws  of  Child-Development,  accepting  the  Periods 
we  have  Studied  in  Child-Psychology. 

Practical  Grading.  Children  Differ  in  Mental  Capacity,  according  to 
Age  and  Race  and  School  Opportunities.  Day  School  (irading 
the  best  to  follow.  Ninety  per  cent  will  agree,  Age  and  (irade 
alike;  but  five  per  cent  will  differ  at  eacli  end.  CliiUlren  appre- 
ciate and  accept  this  plan. 

Small  Schools  can  be  fully  graded  by  a  two-year  or  a  three-year 
Cycle,  combining  Ages  and  Grades,  and  ruiniing  one-half  or  one- 
third  the  full  Curriculum  each  year. 

Principles  of  a  Proper  Curriculum:  1.  Emotions  (Heart  or  Feelings) 
plus  2.  Intellect  (Head),  plus  ;5.  Will  (Doing,  Action,  Habit, 
Character).     These  must  all  find  provision  in  rrrri/  Lesson. 

Application  in  a  Full  Curriculum. 

Kindergarten  and  Primary.     ]-(>  and  (i-S  or  !). 

{(i)  Appreciate  only  Concrete,  and  hence  no  Idea  of  Time  or  Space. 
No  Chronology.  Old  Testament  Stories  iuid  Life  of  Clirist 
Stories  the  best  Material.     No  "System"'  can  be  taught  well  till 


(iUAI)IX(;  TUK  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  133 

Adolescence.     ]5iit    the    Imlividiial    Tiuilis    of    a    System    can    be 

taught  Topically. 
(6)    Appreciate  Half-tone  Pictures.     Child  needs  a   Vivid  Mental 

Picture.     Use  Different  Pictures  of  a  Subject  that  Children  may 

learn  that  All  are  but  Human  Ideas,  and  not  Real  Pictures  or 

Portraits. 
Provide  Activity  and  ]\Iotion  on  part  of  Children. 
Principles  of  the  Kindergarten:   but  not  alivmjs  the  Methods  are 

actually  applicable  in  the  Sunday  School.     Thus,  First  Gift  is 

used  in  Old  Testament  Stories.     Second  Gift  is  met  by  Israel's 

Wars  and  Dramatization.     So  all  through. 

Grammar  Scliool. 

Use  Heuristic  or  Source  Method. 

Grade  I.     Best  ]\Iemory  Age:    Hence  Catechism. 

Pictorial  Age:    Hence  Symbolic  Church  Year. 

Worshipful  Age:    Hence  Prayer  Book. 
Grades  II.  and  III.     Primitive  Traits:    Hence  Old  Testament  Stories. 
Grade  IV.     Concrete  Life  of  Christ. 

Historic  Perception:     Hence  Maps. 

Concrete  Still:    Hence  Fact  Questions. 

Little  Reasoning:    Hence  no  Deductions  nor  Principles. 
Grade  V.     Concrete  Ethics,  Principles  of  Christ's  Teachings. 

Biographical  Study  of  Heroes  of  Apostolic  Church. 

Conscience  Rising:    Hence  Ethics. 

Biographical  Age:    Hence  Bible  Characters. 
Grade  VI.     Old  Testament  History. 

Weld  Old  Testament  Stories  of  Earlier  Study  together  now. 

Abstraction  Begins:    Hence  Historic  Relationships. 

Historic  Vision  of  Preparation  for  Christ. 
Grade  VII.     Life  and  Works  of  Christ,  the  Messiah. 

Life  now  is  "Christocentric":    Hence  Christ  Appeals  to  Heart. 
Grade  VIII.     Christian  Doctrine. 
Conversion  Age — Storm  and  Stress — Doubts — Ideals. 
Hence  Answers  in  Doctrine  and  Ideals  of  Life  Work  and  Service. 

H if/lb  School  and  Posl-flraduatc  Hcltools. 

Electives  of  Apostolic  Church  Historj',  ]\rodern  Missions,  Epistles, 
Christian  Socialism,  Prophets  of  Old  Testament,  Prayer  Book, 
Making  of  Bible,  Hymns,  Non-Christian  Religions,  etc. 
Issue  a  Folder,  Giving  Scheme  of  a  Graded  School,  so  that  All 
Teachers,  Pupils,  and  Officers  know  the  plan  and  the  Parents  as 
well,  in  order  to  cooperate  with  it. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GRADING   THE    SUNDAY    SCHOOL,   THE    PRINCIPLES 
OF  A  CURRICULUM 

What  is  a  Graded  School? 

Every  official  Sunday  Scliool  organization  to-day,  of  the 
Episcopal  Church — the  Joint  Commission  of  the  General  Con- 
vention, the  Joint  Diocesan  Lesson  Committee,  the  Sunday 
School  Federation  of  Commissions  and  Institutes,  all  diocesan 
Sunday  School  organizations,  usually  known  as  Commissions, 
have,  after  a  decade  of  general  discussion  and  investigation, 
unanimously  come  to  the  same  conclusion,  and  define  the 
Graded  School  as  one  that  has  a  definite  order  of  studies, 
graded,  therefore,  according  to  subjects  or  topics  of  lessons, 
based  pedagogically  and  psychologically  upon  the  child's  na- 
ture, which  we  have  been  studying,  and  realizing  the  fact  that 
the  child's  interests  differ  at  different  stages  of  his  develop- 
ment, and  that  the  door  is  shut  to  the  entree  of  certain  ideas 
before  a  definite  time.  Tliis  kind  of  grading  is  usually  called 
"Subject-grading,"  and  tliis  kind  of  a  school  a  "Subject- 
graded  School." 

It  means  that  a  vast  amount  more  can  be  taught  a  child, 
with  a  saving  of  energy  and  time  and  worry,  taught  in  an 
interesting  and  attractive  and  pleasing  manner,  taught  in 
accordance  with  child-nature,  rather  than  opposing  it,  ilian 
lias  ever  been  secured  witli  the  old  notion  of  a  school  (Day 
School  or  Sunday  School  alike)  based,  as  we  have  said,  upon 
the  adult's  ideas,  rather  than  the  child's.  Grading  applies, 
therefore,  to  lessons  as  well  as  to  organization. 


GRADING  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  135 

The  Eeport  of  the  Joint  Commission  of  the  General  Con- 
vention states  clearly  that  "a  school  should  be  graded  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  recognized  laws  of  child  development. 
There  are  well-marked  periods  in  child-life.  The  earliest  runs 
until  about  seven  years.  The  second  is  from  seven  to  nine 
or  ten,  roughly  speaking.  The  third  runs  from  nine  or  ten 
to  about  thirteen.  The  fourth  covers  approximately  the  ages 
of  thirteen  to  seventeen.  It  is  convenient  to  have  the  school 
divided  into  departments  according  to  these  periods,  and  espe- 
cially desirable  where  there  is  facility  for  using  separate  rooms 
or  buildings. 

"But  actual  separation  of  pupils  is  not  so  important  as 
a  differentiation  in  the  lesson  material,  and  the  way  of 
handling  it.  In  the  Beginners'  and  Primary  Grades,  the  chil- 
dren will  not  be  expected  to  do  much  home  work. 

Grading  is  pedagogically  recognizing  Cliild-Psychology, 
i.e.,  child-development.  Good  Grading  must,  therefore,  plan 
(1)  to  adapt  the  Topical  Subject-matter  or  material  to  the 
right  age;  (2)  to  meet  the  particular  moral,  practical,  and 
mental  Eequirement  of  each  period  of  development;  (3)  to 
supply  All  the  Eeligious  Instruction  Material,  Collateral,  Cor- 
related Subjects,  etc.,  consistent  with  the  broadest  possible 
Eeligious  Education,  giving  due  regard  to,  and  practical  co- 
operation with,  the  Public  School  Work  of  the  children.  It 
supplements,  not  supplants,  the  Day  School.  (4)  It  will,  of 
course,  in  doing  this,  adjust  questions  to  the  comprehension  of 
the  children.  It  will  be  adjustment,  not  in  the  same  material, 
but  differing  material,  suited  to  each  age.  In  all  Schools, 
this  grading  should  be  done  by  a  specially  qualified  teacher. 
It  will  seldom  be  the  Superintendent,  who  is  qualified  in 
]\Ianagement,  not  Education.  It  may  be  one  of  the  regular 
class  teachers,  or  a  Special  Grading  Officer. 


13(5  TiiK  I';lkaii<;.\is  of  cm  LI)  study 

Practical  Grading. 

In  looking  at  the  studies  suggested  in  each  grade,  we  must 
first  evidently  allow  for  locality,  since  it  is  apparent  that 
children  in  some  schools  are  fully  one  year  in  general  behind 
those  of  other  schools  in  mental  ability.  This  is  due  some- 
times to  race,  sometimes  to  locality,  as  between  city  and 
country,  sometimes  to  the  condition  of  the  Day  Schools.  This, 
of  course,  affects  the  order  of  studies,  and  instead  of  a  child 
being  able  to  enter  the  Grammar  School  at  eight  or  nine,  it 
does  not  come  in  till  ten.  Thus  what  often  appears  to  be  a 
dissimilar  topic  at  a  certain  age  will  not  be,  if  we  stop  to 
justly  regard  the  mind  of  the  child.  Again,  the  ages  for 
certain  classes  of  facts  are  not  definitely  established,  but  only 
serve  approximately  as  guides.  We  may  safely  infer  that  at 
most  not  more  than  two  years'  difference  should  be  allowed 
for  divergence  of  opinion  as  to  the  position  of  the  main  topics 
for  the  Grammar  School  Grades. 

In  undertaking  to  grade  a  school,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  Day  School  Grade  must  be  tlic  ?nain  guide.  Make 
a  carefully  tal)ulated  list  on  paper  of  cacli  child,  with  address, 
age,  and  Day  School  Grade.  On  ihe  arcrage,  it  will  be  found 
tliat  five  jDer  cent  are  one  grade  ahead  of  their  age,  and  five 
per  cent  one  grade  beliiiid.  That  is,  ninety  per  cent  will 
agree,  year  with  grade.  In  tlie  slum  districts  oL'  a  city,  tlie 
minimum  of  five  i^er  cent  delicients  will  amount  to  fifteen 
per  cent,  or  even  more,  in  cultured  districts,  the  pi'ogressives 
will  rise  to  about  the  same  propoi'tion,  nfteim  jier  cent.  I'lac- 
iiig  the  gi-ading  strictly  n\)on  the  standing  in  Day  School  does 
away  with  dissatisfaction,  grumbling,  and  open  rebellion.  The 
"Gi-ading  Teacher"  is  relieved  of  seeming  ai'hiti'ariness,  for 
he  lias  no  option.  The  child  recognizes  its  place  in  Day 
School,  and  most  naturally  falls  into  the  same  place  in  Sun- 
day School,  with  the  added  advantage  of  learning  to  ])lace  the 
Sunday  School  and  the  Day  Scliool  on  the  same  pai'  nt  the 


GRADING^  TllK  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  137 

start.    In  large  schools,  each  grade  is  a  year ;  in  small  schools, 
two  grades  combine  to  form  a  two-3'ear  cycle. 
How  to  Grade  a  Small  School. 

It  is  a  very  simj^le  tiling  to  grade  even  the  smallest  country 
School  so  that  each  child  has  its  distinct  grade,  year  after 
year,  and  a  definite,  progressive,  well  mappcd-oiit  subject- 
curriculum. 

If,  for  example,  we  say  that  there  are  to  be  eiglit  grades 
above  the  Primary,  i.e.,  running  from  eight  years  of  age  to 
eighteen,  we  can  give  any  nomenclature  we  wish  to  those 
grades,  the  best  one  being  the  Public  School  names  for  the 
corresponding  ages  approximately.  The  School  is  too  small 
for  sixteen  classes,  eight  each  of  boys  and  girls.  Half  that 
number  would  be  all  it  could  possibly  manage,  perhaps 
even  less. 

Now  manifestly  every  child,  no  matter  how  few  the  grades, 
lives  through  ten  years  in  passing  from  eight  to  eighteen. 
Again,  a  year  or  two  one  way  or  the  other  does  not  make 
any  essential  difference  in  the  choice  of  a  subject  to  be  taught. 
Now,  if  we  take,  for  illustration,  the  eight  grades  or  a  Graded 
Series  above  the  "Beginning  Reading"  age,  number  them, 
say,  I.,  II.,  III.,  etc.,  up  to  VIII.,  we  can  arrange  them  this 
way  for  a  two-year  course,  each  year  having  but  four  grades 
taught,  and  the  cycle  completing  all  the  eight.  We  then  put 
the  two  years  (or  two  grades)  of  children  together,  thus: 

Ages.  First  Year.  Second  Yeau. 

8   and     9  Grade  fe ^^^__^.,.,^  Grade  II. 

10  and   11  Grade  IIJ,^^^^=>-Giade  IV. 

11  and    13  Grade  V—- ==^^^:==-^i  radc  VI. 
14   and    15  Cirade  VII.- — '       Grade  VIII. 

A  child  entering  the  (Jrammar  School  at  eight  takes  Grade 
I.,  is  nine  the  next  year  and  takes  Grade  II.,  is  ten  the  next 
year  and  take  Grade  III.,  is  eleven  the  next  year  and  takes 
G]"ade  lY.,  etc.,  right  down  through  the  curriculum.     There 


138  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

is  a  definite  progression,  with  larger  classes,  fewer  teachers, 
and  gi eater  adaptahilitv  to  the  small  school.  Thus  the  odd 
grades  are  all  running  the  first  year,  and  the  even  ones  all 
the  second. 

An  essential  to  this  scheme  is  a  printed  folder — a  leaflet 
that  shows  the  sequence  and  biennial  arrangement,  so  that 
teachers  and  pupils  understandingly  enter  into  the  fulfilment 
of  the  course.  The  Curriculum  will  therefore  run  as  follows 
in  the  little  printed  folder : 
Small   School   Curriculum. 

Our  Grading  and  Curriculum. 
Primary  and  Kindergarten  Grades. 

Stories  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 

Kindergarten  Methods. 
Class  1920 — Grades  III.  and  IV. — Tuo  Years'  Course. 

1st  Year — Old  Testament  Stories,  Catechism  and  Christian  Year. 

2nd  Year — Old  Testament  and  Prayer  Book. 
Class  1918 — Grades  V.  and  VI. — T^co  Years'  Course. 

1st  Y^ear — Junior  Life  of  Christ. 

2nd  Y''ear — Early  Christian  Leaders  or  Christian  Etliics. 
Class  1916 — Grades  VII.  and  VIII. — Tico  Years'  Course. 

1st   Y^ear — Advanced   Old   Testament   History   or   Biography. 

2nd  Year — Senior  Life  of  Christ. 
Class  1914 — High  School — Three  Years'  Course. 

1st  Year — Church   Doctrine. 

2nd  Year — Apostolic  Church. 

3rd  Year — Church   History. 

Post  Graduate  School. 

Bible  and  Normal  Classes  for  Adults. 

The  details  of  a  resultful  folder  for  the  School  of  over 

one-hundred  pupils  is  given  in  Eeligious  Education  and  in 

The  Sunday  School  of  Today.    The  latter  book  should  be 

in  the  hands  of  every  Principal  and  Superintendent. 

The  Principles  of  a  Well-rounded  Curriculum. 

The  child  is  a  unit.     His  physical  life  is  manifested 

through    his    Emotions    (heart    or    feelings),    his    Intellect 

(head),  and  his  will    (doing  or  acting).     N"o  education  is 


GRADING  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  139 

complete  ■without  due  provision  for  the  training  of  each  of 
these  in  jDroper  proportion,  and  with  consistent  correlation 
with  the  so-called  secular  or  Day  School  studies. 

Thus  in  a  well-rounded  Curriculum  we  must  in  each 
grade,  even  in  each  lesson,  take  account  of  (a)  the  Child's 
Interests,  that  is  the  Instincts,  which  are  our  only  material  to 
train  into  Habits,  (h)  Worship,  (c)  Missions,  which  train 
his  heart  and  his  life  in  the  realm  of  Love,  (d)  Memory 
^York,  (e)  the  Subject-matter  of  Instruction  (Curriculum), 
M'hicli  concerns  his  intellect,  (/)  Self -activity,  by  which  he 
learns  self-expression  in  doing,  and  finally  (g)  Christian 
Work,  the  Society  to  which  he  will  belong  at  each  stage  of 
liis  education,  through  which  he  will  practically  carry  out  the 
Teachings  of  Christ  in  Christian  Altruism  and  Service  to  his 
fellows  in  the  world. 

It  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  Lesson  topic,  the 
age  of  the  Class,  and  the  amount  of  time,  which  points  shall 
be  emphasized  each  week. 

We  now  insert  a  summary  of  the  Standard  Curricula  as  a 
guide  to  Superintendents  and  Principals  in  selecting  a  proper 
norm  for  local  adaptation. 

As  we  have  said,  the  Episcopal  Church  has,  throughout, 
led  in  this  Forward  Movement.  Its  Curricula  have  been  so 
wisely  planned,  and  so  well  adapted  to  the  psychological  prin- 
ciples of  Child  Development  and  in  the  Child's  Interests  and 
Needs,  that  they  have  been  universally  taken  as  the  basis  for 
the  Curricula  of  all  Christian  Bodies.  We,  therefore,  present 
the  Curriculum  of  the  New  A'ork  Commission,  the  basis  of 
them  all,  as  the  General  Standard,  because  it  so  fitly  corre- 
lates the  topics  of  the  Curriculum  with  the  aim  of  the 
Teacher;  the  w^ork  and  Self-expression  of  the  Child;  and  the 
Societies  for  personal  activity. 
/  Other  Curricula  are  found  in  the   Special  Lesson   Sys- 

/     tems  of  the  Joint   Diocesan,  the   Blakeslee,   the   Syndicate 


140 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 


A  GRADED  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  SCHEME  ACCORDING  TO  THE 

COMPILED  BY  THE  REV  WM    WALTER  SMITH,  M.A.,  M  D..  MEMBER  OF  THE  GENERAL  BOARD  OF  REUCIOUS  EDUCATION. 


^HSiL 

*o. 

^"„i.".,;re';y.\"n" 

Till:    lEACItER 

cu.a,cct.UM 

HO. 

COCHSCTtX.. 

""ivxk,'r 

Kinder- 
go  rlen 

III 

■JO 

Dolnc  .Mollon. 
ronerel.-.        One- 
self.  .Names. 

To       develop       a 
kind,  lovln*.  Joy 
ous       child.       by 
teacblni;     ot 

wisdom.      love, 
and    care .    Ineul 
eating   ol.edlenee. 

il'orshlp.    as    cen' 
lerlng       In       the 
(Teed.       Lords 
Prayer,   and   Ten 
loramandmenls 

Wond.r       Stories 
of  Old  Test     ond 
Life      of      Christ. 
Nature.  (,od.  and 
Ills   Works. 

1 

S     S     Commission    Kloder- 

Pictures,  half  and  onc-ceol. 

2 

1  u     Chicago    Kindergarten 

Material   with   Book. 

3 

syndieale  Primary  Lessons 
Ibree  V.or  Course,      Or 

Teacher's  Monuol. 

6 

saa.lay    School    Lessons   for 
Voang    Children     t  Palmer) 
Two    V.ars 

Picture  Cards.  90c  per  100  ; 

■Bible     Lessons     lor     Little 

Beginners^'    tCuahmuD) 
Two   Years 

p.nny  Pictures.  CraglD  • 
o    T   *  .N    T    Stories.     Plc- 

miiinrr 

II 

,-,0 

0  t  b  e  r  ..       All 
Iblois*      «eeo. 
beard,   felt.      Col 
leetlng.     Con 

ivnsrlene.-''  Obe' 
dieof.    Love.    In 
addlltoo     to     the 

Tbe    Bome     Mote- 
rial          Itiogrnpb- 

■Love.     Life,    and     Light" 
1  Mabel   Wlisoni. 

Pleturc   Cords.   30c  per  100. 

Guromtii 

Junior 

III 

9-12 

leellnn.    *     Group 

Ueadinf;.   Geogra- 
phy.     Slo«rapby 
History.     Renllly 
,uid   facta 

T..  .'Stal.llsb   P,r 
s..n:il      Habits 
aloni;   Moral   am 

it',-,  o'cnillon'       o 
1..1W   and   Duty 

ral.ehism       Telt 
and    M  e  a  n  i  n  g. 

7 

Catechism    Illustrated    and 
ICspialned. 

Step    Catechism  ;    Meaning 
of   Words;    Pictures.      The 
Catechism  by  Ward  or  Me 
Pherson 

Player    Book     14 
c  b  u  r  c  b       Year 

8 

Our  Book  of  Worship. 

Tbe  Teacher's  Prayer  Book. 
I'lctur.'s;  Patterson  Chart. 
Smith's  History,  etc. 

9 

Story  of  the  Christian  Year 

Slnley.   Liturgical  Year 

n  1  d      Testament 

10 

Hero  Stories  of  O    T. 
Year   1  .   PfH.    1   &   2 

S  S  C  Manuals;  Pictures; 
Maps  .   .Models. 

Glories 

11 

Hero  Stories  of  U    T. 
Year  11.   Pis.   1   4  •-'. 

Life      of      Christ 
(Junior  ) 

12 

Junior  Life  of  Cbrlst. 
I'ts.    1  &  2 

S.  S.  C.  Teacher's  .Manual  : 
Stokoes  Four  Gospela: 
Stalker's  Lite  of  Christ; 
I'i.tures.  Maps. 

Cbrlsllan     Ethics 

L) 

lM'wx'i'l,"'l''ic'"I'    o'r""" 

S.  S.  C.   Manual. 

Lead.-i's"  ' 

U 

Stories   of   Christian    Lead- 
ers      Pis     1    Si   2. 

S    S    C    .Manual. 

Grammar 
Senior 

Middle 

Inter- 
mediate 
VI 
VII 
VIII 

12  1. 

Broader       Vlew^ 
Love  of  History 
tbe    berolc.    dor 
lui;.  cblvolry     Al 

relatlona,    proofs 

To  _^   ■"/j'',". 
Ideal     Hero    and 
tlie  0    T    03   tb. 
I'lepurotlon      fo 
ills  coming 

0  1  d     Testomen 
History   or   Biog 

10 

Old    Testament     Worthies 

S.  S.  C.   Manual.      < 

lU 

old      'Testament      History 
Pta.    1    &    2,    and    Prepura- 
llon   for  Christ       Kiile. 

remple  Primers.  Fry.  S  S.C. 
Manuals.  Maiis.  etc..  Fair- 
weather. 

s.  s.  C.  Manual :  Butler's 
How  to  Study  the  Life  of 
Cbrist  ;  .Ma|is.  etc.  ;  Con- 
structive Studies  lUn.  Chi- 
cago 1  ;  s    s    c.  Manual. 

the    Messioh. 

17 

Senior    Life,    Messianic. 
PIS    1   «  2 

Apostolic  Church 
History. 

18 

S       Paul     and     the     Lariy 
Church.    Pts.   1  &  2. 

Hlitb 

Senior 

I 

II 

III 

15  1 

Svst.ms.     Phllos 
,.pt,y.      Construe 
live   Ima^lnatloD 
the   luturo,    Bus 
Iness      I'rospeels 
Ideals     of     Lovt 
and  Aetloa 

To      secure      deil 
nite      recognition 
of  one's  persona 
Rclnllon      to 
Cbrist.    and    tb. 
building       of       a 
strong.        Intelll 
gent     CbrlstloD 
ehnraeter       "'Tbi 
Coll  to  romp  ■' 

Cburcb    Uoctrini 
and        Catechism 
prov.d,  or— 

19 

The       Doctrines       ot       tin 
Church     (Smith    or     Brad- 

\Iaclear  on  the  Creed; 
Vonge  on  tbe  Creed. 

Sr     Teaching    o 
Christ    tbe    .Mes 

20 

Teachings    of    Christ     tbe 
Messiah,   rts.    1   &  2. 

S  S  c  Manual  ;  Slolker  s 
S.   Paul  .  Maps.  etc. 

Church     History 

21 

The  Hlstoiy  of  the  Church 
Tbe        Kingdom       Growing 
rllradneri. 

Colls^  Turning  Poinls.  etc. 
Maps.  I'Ictur.s.  .Mission- 
,iv    Hoards  Periodicals. 

Post- 

Graduote 

I. 

II. 

Ill 

182 

Il-formatlnns. 
Polities.       S.)ela 
.ind  clTle  values 
Altruistic    Works 

■Tbe       Call       tc 
i;o"          Persona 
work    for    Cl.rls 
and     His     King 
dom 

History    of    Mis 
slops 

22 

General   Pamphlets  on   Mis 
sions. 

Hoard  Test   Books. 

Non-Christian 
Iteiiglons. 

2.-i 

rbilstlanliy      and      World 

Books  cited  io  it.     S.  S.  C. 

Manual 

itciigious      Peda 
gogy 

2.1 

Manuals  on   Tcacher-Truin 

S    S    C    Tc«t   Book. 

Sociology 
.Methods       o 
Chureb   Work 

2.-, 

General    Pamphlets   on   So 
.  iology  t 

Geneial  licndlns. 

ll..oks  cited  in  it. 
Ibioks   suggested  In   it. 

liaiil.l  nn  Hie  Prayer  Book 

Makiug   Bible. 

im; 

.Making  Bible   (Smith  1. 

i:plstles 

>: 

in:;;:;Va:;T:r'p\ 

Hymns 

Hist      of     I'rayei 
Book 

Adult 

Post- 

Graduate 

21 

All    above.      Als< 
new    Interests    In 
Poetry.   Art.   Mu 
sir.     Noture.    So 
<lal    l'eellO|;s. 

To      deepen      Ihf 
Heaiizatlon        o 
Mnns  Value  nnil 
Obligation  10  So 
rlely      Principles 
functioning        In 
riolng 

Choice    by    class 
from    above     top 
lea            Intensive 
study      of      Kpis 
lies.-'llomlletrea 
Study   of   tbe    Bi 
hie  for   Devotion 
al  Knds 

N..T1-.— Courses   12.    1.1.    10.   111.  are   mutually   com 
plementnry       No.   i:i  foiluwa   12  and  gives  Ni:w   muto- 
rial   only.      .No     IS   in   like   mjinner  coinpli  t.s   .No.    10 
All  four  may  lie  used  bv  a  sebool  In  M-rlrs.  or  any  of 
them       laieh   is  a  comidcle  course  ID   llself. 

This  Chart  may  be  secured 


r  the  School  of  100  Pupils    up 

111   for   rirst    "  ■    '■ 

In    Pn-parmlo 


b(]  No's    ;;.   s.   11.    i;:.   I7.   ih.   -jl    iIk   Snond  War      iv.r  Third 
from  the  New  York  Sunday  School  Commission.  Inc..  416  Lafayette  Street. 


GRADING  TITE  SUNDAY  SCITOOL 


141 


THREE-FOLD  DIVISION-INTELLECT.  FEELINGS.  AND  WILL  (doing.) 

FIELD  SECRETARY  SECOND  DEPARTMENT,  SECRETARY  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  COMMISSION.  Inc. 


""cuung' 

MEMOnT    n-ORU 

^^o" 

'^t'r^'^.Wr 

Fof^J.^K 

"TbIII"' 

UIS3I0X8 

LECTUMS 

Stories    ood     II- 
lustrnliODs.    Coa- 
creie.     Topical 

Hystrni         IiDlta- 
llve       S^lf-ncilv 
lly         Bible  nnd 
Natuiv         IrurhR 
<r>rrt-lntPd      wtlb 
l).i-alo;;.      Creed, 
and       Lords. 

Lord's        Prayer. 
Creed.        Hymns. 
Private     Dally 
Prayers.     U  1  b  I  r 
Tens 

Age 

of 
Impulse 

Hymns.      Motion 
Songs.  Move- 
ments.   Marcb- 
Ing,  Games.  Ri-c 
1  t  a  t  1  0  n  s.    I'U- 
tures.     Sand- 
table.       Black 
board,  etc. 

Babies' 
Branch. 
Foal     Roll. 

Blrlbday. 
and    Ml.ssloD- 
«ry    Boies. 
Junior  Auill 
lary 

Occasional     at 

part    of   a    Ser- 
vice,  with   par- 
ents.    Personal 
Dally      D  e  V  0 
tlons. 

Stereoptlcon 
Lectures  on    Mis- 
sionary     Stories. 
SlmpK-       Prayers 
for    Missions. 

Stereoptlcon 
Lectures  oa  Mtt- 
slons    and    Bible 
and    Natare   Sto- 
ries. 

More   BuBE'Sllvp, 
witb    Kr,nl»-r    In 
Itlailve     on     tlic 
part    of    the    pu- 
pils 

Psalm  ::3.  Otbrr 
Psiilms.     Uvmns, 
\h-ca\og.      i^lorlii 
Tlbl.   Pi     I    CqU- 
tbism 

Ace 
of 
Imita- 
tion 

The     snme:     but 
1.  ss      .^f      bodily 

More  rccltatWe.  ' 

lllury.    M  1  n- 
iRterlne  Cbll- 
dren-s  Lcasuc 
Guild   o(   the 
Holy  rblld. 

Weekly    In    Cb 
ut    Special    Ser 
vices   as   above 
Private      Pray- 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Writ  trn     Ad 

Note    nooks 
BlograpblcQl 
At     11.     HIstorl 
ral.    with    Maps. 
Pictures.  Models. 
Note  Bks..   Writ- 
too    Work.    Dlble 
CItpplngs. 

Hymns.  AH  Can 
lidos.        Chaotii. 
i:i    Coltecls.    En 
tire  Catecbism 
Bible  Passape^ 
In     longer    aclec- 
tloQS.    Psalms, 
etc.     Older  Pray 

Age 

of 
llabit 

Manual    work. 
Written  answers. 
Bible     nnd      pic- 
ture Note   Books 
.Map-roiiklng     (at 
10)     tn     clay, 
sand,  pulp  :  Map- 
t.-lorlng  In  crny 
■  <os.  colors,  dyes 
.Modtls  made  and 
dr.nwQ     Symbolh 
UriiwInKs.      etc 

Siercogrnphs 
rtcporls  on   Prin- 
ciples   lived      So 
clal  Work 

Brolbrrbood 
of    David. 
Older     Guild 
n  t         Holy 
Cblld 
Jun-r(5  P  S 

Junior  Aux- 
iliary. 

At  12  years, 
Knlsbts      of 
.sir    Unlnbad 
Knlcbts       of 
Kins  Arthur. 

Scouts. 
Queens  of 
AvBlon 

Older      Private 
Pra        Weekly 
Public    Wor 
ship.     Afterio. 
required      twice 
a  week.     Week- 
d  a  y     Services 
Noonday    Pray- 
er for  Missions 
Cblldren'a     Ku- 
charlst. 

Missionary    Blog 
r  a  p  b  1  es.    with 
Story     Studied 
;ind  Told:  Stere- 
opUion    Lectures. 
Stereographs     ol 
Mission       Fields- 
Regular    Mission- 
ary Lessons,  Map 
making,     models. 

dressed    dolls. 
Missionary  Boies 
prepared          Pic- 
ture a    of    t  h  t 
lie  Ids 

Lccturea    on    Dl 
ble  Stories.  Child 
heroes.     MIsalOD 
ary   Biographies. 

Same    as    ebov?. 
wltb    more   wrlt- 
K'Q    Work        Dls- 

lUSSloD.         SCCUH' 

■  oDtrul  or  rerlto- 
tlon  by  pupils. 

Nlcene     Creed. 
Hymna.    Colletts, 
Psulma.     1     Cor 
Hi.  Scrm.  on  Ml 
sun  Older   Pniy 
t-rs,       Review    o( 
Canticles        More 
Prayer    Book    Se 

Ace 

of 

M..rftl 

Crisis 

All       of      above 
Add  much  Allru- 
iMlc    and    Soitiil 
W  o  r  k  .     Lonyer 
ICssays     nnd     Bl 
oirrsipliles.  Group 
or     gnng     (Club, 
rtrcanlzntlon,  Be- 
jiorls     on      work 
(lone.  etc. 

Jr  Aujlllory. 
Jr    O    I-    S. 
i;ullds   of   S 
Jobn    and    S 
Maty.    Wblt.- 

rrosa  t;ullds 
Jun   Urollii'i'- 
b  0  o  d  of  S 
Andrew 

All  above    Holy 

Self  -  examlan- 
il..n             (ildei 
l-iayers.      Medl 
lullun,         Devo- 
tlunul    Reading: 
of  lilblc.  etc. 

Study       of       the 
llUtory    of    Mis- 
sions    Longer  es- 
say s,     readings, 
sillily     of    Missy 
books        Needs  ol 
Itie   l-lelds.      Best 
opportunities   for 
wuik      Particular 
Prayers  for  Mia- 

Lectures   on    Hu 
[Dun      Physiology 
nnd    Morals    and 
llenllb  by  Pbysl 
rians    HfBtorv  of 
Missions    and    Of 
the      growth      of 
the    Cliurcb,    Ch. 
History.    Cb.    Id 
America,    111.    by 
Stereoptlcon.  etc 

Historical      and 
broad           Dlscus- 
Monnl       .  Kssays. 
IVrlltm    Work 
ronslriicti  vo 
ritib  Idea.     Svlt 
muDngimeot. 

Selections      from 
Bible       Passages 
csp.    S.    Jobo.    S 
Miittbew.       R.v . 
and       M*sslaolt 
Propbecleg,        In 
trospectlve      Ma 
terlal 

Romance 

and 
Idvullty 

Research        work 
on     Special     Top- 
ics.      Class     con- 
ducted   by    pupil 
Uiidtra.       Confer- 
ences    and     DIs 
cusslons.      rather 
than  Itecltatlons 

S  r     of    a  1  1 
above.  Sr    <; 
1'    S.    Auxil- 
iary. B  S  A  . 
l/ltlifrj      0  f 

<;ullds   of   s' 
Paul    nnd    S 
Catbarln.-.eli 

All  above      Add 
Worship    at 
Salnia'  Days. 

with       Reports 
.\  1  1   0  f  a  bo  v  e, 

vl.es.         Mission 
.iry    Boxes.     Con 
(1u<t     ..f     Junior 
Aiixlll«rv 

Lectures  OD  Jew 
Isb    lire  and  cua 
toms,   History  of 
Israel,   of  Christ 
Aposi     Cb..    Mis 
slun.'*.    Making 
Bible.      Discover 
1  es    In    Bible 
Lands. 

More    Personal 
Itesearcb         Few 
Questions.      Sug- 
L'fiillve       respon- 
-.lvi-aes.1.      rupll- 
leaders.        Pupils 
plao  own  work. 

Selected    Master 
plecea    from     lit- 
erary gema.    Bib- 
Ileal.    Secular. 
Poetical.    OptloD- 

Age 

of 

Decision 

Same    as    above 
More     Individual 
contribution       to 
discussion.         re 
search.        tbca.-s 

Woman's 

Auxiliary 
Bro.  of  H-  An- 
drew. Daucb 
t.rs     of     Ibe 
Kloir.    Sanct 
uary       (bop 

As  above 

Mission         Study 
riassea.       Boxes. 
Work.       Prayers. 
Noontide       I'rny- 
eis.    etc        All    OS 

Lectures  on  lives 
of    M  a  r  t  y  r  •  . 
Saints.  Prayer 
Book   .  History. 
Social     Work. 
etc..    tn    addition 
to      above      aub 
J  t  c  t  a.     Qeoeral 

Teaching.     Use  of 
siereoptlcdta     oc 

Same  as  abovc- 

Optlooal 

Age 

Conserv- 

at  lam 

Same  as  nbovc. 

.Same       as 

As  above. 

As  above.    Great- 
er giving. 

As  above. 

yean.   12.   13  or  14.   13 


10.   IT.    18.   20.    21.   and    Electlyes.      I'or   tbc   SMiLL    Scbool,    uw 


■  trade  eath  year. 

New  York.    Mounted  on  rollers  and  clolh-backed.  14jil7  inches,  50  cents;  on  paper,  25  cents. 


142  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Graded  Lessons,  etc.,  but  they  all  follow  the  same  sequence 
of  Topics,  and  the  same  general  plan,  less  elaborately 
worked  out. 

Of  course,  in  churches  that  do  not  have  Lessons  on  the 
Christian  Year,  Prayer  Book,  and  Catechism,  these  topics  are 
replaced  by  Biblical  Material. 

The  Curriculum  of  the  New  York  Sunday  School  Commission. 

This  Curriculum  is  practically  the  fStandard  to-day  as  an 
all-round  curriculum,  for  the  Episcopal  Church  and  for  other 
Eeligious  Bodies.  It  follows  the  same  subjects  as  the  official 
Curriculum  of  the  Joint  Commission  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  (now  the  General  Board  of  Eeligious  Education)  and 
of  the  Sunday  School  Federation.  In  fact  it  was  the  norm 
or  basis  from  which  these  two  were  compiled,  but  it  also 
presents  in  tabular  form  certain  other  essential  points,  which 
must  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  hj  every  teacher  in  the 
education  of  the  child.  The  Curriculum  evolved  by  that  Com- 
mission was  a  gradual  growth,  an  evolution,  unfolded  step  by 
step  by  the  production  of  a  Series  of  Lesson  Manuals,  each 
one  a  link  in  the  Curriculum. 

Psychological   Principles  of  Child   Nature  under  which  this  Cur- 
riculum is  Planned. 

The  Kindergarten  and  Primary  Schools.  Commenc- 
ing at  the  Kindergarten  and  Primary  Schools,  there  should  be 
rather  a  sharp  line  of  separation  drawn  at  five-and-a-half  or 
six  years  of  age,  putting  none  under  the  former  age  in  the 
Primary  School  proper.  The  Primary  School  itself  would 
then  include  from  six  (or  thereabout)  up  to  the  reading  age, 
usually  eight  or  eight-and-a-half.  Do  not  call  either  school 
"Infants."  No  one  is  an  "infant"  over  one  year  old.  A 
baby  name  yields  baby  work. 

The  system  should  be  based  upon  two  principles :  (a)  That 
very  small  children  can  appreciate  only  the  concrcie,  and  have 


GRADING  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  143 

no  proper  conception  of  either  time  or  space.  Naturally  they 
cannot  have,  for  both  of  these  realizations  are  only  possible 
through  actual  experience,  and  the  child's  experience  up  to 
this  period  is  but  limited !  Hence,  on  the  one  hand,  Bible 
Stories  are  best  suited  to  the  ability  of  such  minds;  and,  in 
the  second  place,  the  order  of  these  stories  is  best  not  chrono- 
logical but  topical,  according  to  subject  and  moral;  making 
each  story  a  concrete  and  graphic  whole,  a  polished  mosaic  as 
it  were,  ready  finished,  to  be  fitted  into  the  complete  historical 
scheme  as  it  is  presented  at  a  later  age. 

All  educators  agree  that  the  appreciation  of  a  "system" 
involves  abstract  elements,  such  as  relationships,  cause  and 
effect,  chronology,  space,  etc.  Then  a  ^'system''  is  unpeda- 
gogical  for  instruction,  prior  to  adolescence,  when  reflection 
and  causal  relations  are  developed.  The  individual  truths  of 
a  system,  concrete  and  topical,  can  be  taught  very  early,  in 
the  Kindergarten  and  Primary  Age.  They  are  parts  of  the 
great  system  of  Truth.  Each  can  be  taught  in  detail,  and, 
as  such,  will  be  complete  in  itself.  Later  on,  they  will  be 
welded  into  the  general  "system,"  of  which  they  form  a  part. 

Such  stories,  well  taught,  particularly  in  this  period,  when 
memory  is  vital,  strong,  and  retentive,  are  almost  never  for- 
gotten. They  form  a  groundwork  for  future  grasp  of  the 
general  History  of  the  Bible. 

(6)  It  is  agreed  to-day  by  the  best  artists  in  educational 
circles,  that  very  young  children  can  appreciate  detailed 
pictures,  such  as  half-tones,  etc.,  and  do  not  care  for  inartistic 
and  crude  outline  representations.  The  artistic  sense  is  closely 
akin  to  the  religious  instinct,  and  it  can  and  should  be  deeply 
awakened  at  an  early  period  in  childhood. 

Therefore,  it  is  felt  by  many  that  such  outline  devices  as 
dotted-line  cards  for  sewing,  pricking-in  pin-holes,  coloring 
with  crayons  or  paints,  etc.,  though  excellent  so  far  as  they 
go,  are  not  the  hest  that  can  be  used.    But  manifestly  some- 


14-1  TILE  EI.K.MKNTS  OK   C'lllED   STUDY 

thing  should  be  supplied  in  addition  to  the  description  of  the 
Bible  Story  and  the  illustrations  of  it  in  colored  chalks  on 
the  blackboard,  both  of  which  are  essential. 

We  must  give  the  child,  concrete  as  he  is,  a  vivid  mental 
picture  of  the  subject,  something  he  can  comprehend  and 
visualize.  More  and  more  to-day  we  are  becoming  a  visualiz- 
ing people.  More  and  more  we  depend  upon  pictures  and 
illustrations  in  our  current  reading  to  convey  to  us,  adults 
even  as  we  are,  the  rapid  and  proper  conception  of  tlie  whole 
subject  in  hand.  Give  the  child,  therefore,  a  picture.  Use 
pictures  right  through,  even  up  to,  and  including,  Bible  Class 
work.  Give  several  representations  of  the  same  subject,  that 
an  erroneous  conception  may  be  prevented  l)y  the  realization 
at  the  outset,  that  all  of  such  illustrations  are  but  human 
ideals,  human  imaginings,  of  the  noblest  possible  trutli  cm- 
bodied  in  a  Story  that  appeals  to  every  age  and  race. 

We  must  provide  for  the  child's  self-activity,  his  own 
self-expression,  the  doing  side,  his  sliare  in  the  lesson  under- 
taken. Give  him  something  active  and  pi'aetical  to  do.  It 
will  color  the  whole  lesson,  because  it  is  the  share  that  he 
contributes  to  the  work.  Teach  the  lesson  vei-hally,  using 
large  wall  pictures,  blackl)oard  drawings,  and  models,  if  the 
last  ])e  ap])lical)le  to  the  subjects.  Then  give  out  a  penny  or 
half-cent  })ictui'e  l)earing  upon  the  topic,  one  lo  each  child. 
Provide  each  child  with  a  Picture  jMounting  Note  iJook.  Bet- 
ter let  him  buy  the  book  liimself,  thus  ]>r()vidiiig  wisely  I'oi' 
the  value  of  ownersliip,  which  is  a  most  I'l-uitful  iusiiuct  in 
arousing  interest,  and  let  the  school  supply  the  ])ictiii'es.  The 
cost  of  the  pictures,  even  for  a  large  school,  is  money  well 
expended.  Large  one-cent  pictures  are  heltt'i-  (linn  hall'-ccnt. 
which  are  too  small  for  the  best  ap])i'eciation  at  that  age.  The 
])ictures  are  gummed  in  by  the  children,  during  the  time 
allowed  each  session  Un-  manual  woi'k,  using  little  gummed 
stickers,  flavored  with  wintorgreen,  purchased  at  (il'teen  cents 


GRADING  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  145 

per  liuiidrcd  from  Dcnuison  (No.  a34).  There  is  no  muciJuge 
nor  dirt  in  the  operation.  Tims  a  Picture  Bible  is  provided, 
through  whicli  the  chikl  is  tauglit  not  only  the  lesson  hut  re- 
ligious art;  and  the  parents  are  interested  in  the  study  o£ 
God's  Word  hy  seeing  the  hook  taken  home  each  week,  and 
thus  directly  aligned  with  the  work  tlie  Sunday  School  is  en- 
deavoring to  do. 

The  pictures  are  tahulated  by  kinds  and  makers  in  the 
Picture  Handl)ook  (Sunday  School  Commission,  9  cents, 
postpaid),  and  we  would  urge  the  reader  to  carefully  study 
the  remarks  relating  to  the  choice  and  use  of  pictures  in  the 
graded  school. 

The  principles  of  the  Kindergarten — as  enunciated  by  its 
great  exponent,  Froebel — are  always  applicable  to  every  kind 
of  teaching  in  every  place,  Sunday  School  as  well  as  Public 
School.  Some  of  the  methods  of  the  Kindergarten,  however, 
are  not  always  adaptable  for  use  in  the  Sunday  School. 

The  Kindergarten  Gifts  stand  for  principles.  For  ex- 
ample, the  First  Gift  is  applied  in  the  Sunday  School  by  the 
wonderful  teaching  of  the  Old,  Testament  and  Life  of  Clirist 
courses,  Wonder  Stories,  so-called,  written  in  picture  language, 
that  are  so  much  more  comprehensive  to  the  young  child  than 
to  us  who  have  lost  our  early  vision.  Such  Bible  stories  are 
closely  akin  to  child  nature  at  the  early  stage.  Their  glowing 
life-forms  speak  tenderly  of  the  loving  character  of  the  good 
God. 

The  Second  Gift  Period,  where  children  begin  to  want 
noise  and  motion,  is  met  by  the  tramp  of  Israel  marching  in 
the  Exodus,  and  the  Conquest,  and  by  dramatization.  Much 
of  the  noise  and  movement  of  the  younger  children,  usually 
so  distracting,  can  be  made  valuable  teaching  assets  in  the 
kindergarten  school. 

In  the  Primary  School  there  will  be  the  same  principles 
of  exercise  or  activity  as  in  the  Kindergarten,  save  that  the 


146  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CH1].D  STUDY 

exercise  will  be  in  the  line  of  Manual  Work,  or  movement  in 
recitation,  Blackboard,  Sand  Table,  Marching.  There  will 
not  be  the  so-called  "exercises,"  nor  the  use  of  the  gifts. 

Children  can  be  taught  for  a  longer  period  without  weari- 
ness. The  same  general  subject  matter,  however,  will  appeal. 
Old  Testament  Stories,  Nature  Stories,  and  Life  of  Christ 
Stories.  The  duties  of  Eeverence,  Obedience,  etc.,  are  incul- 
cated. 

The  aim  would  be  to  plant  in  the  heart  of  the  cliild  a})pre- 
ciation  of  God's  Power,  "Wisdom,  Love,  and  Care  for  His 
children  as  the  ground  for  inculcating  obedience  and  love; 
inspiring  reverence  and  worship  as  centering  in  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  Creed,  and  the  Ten  Commandments. 

THE  MAIN  SCHOOL. 
Grammak  or  Elementary  School.— Junior  and  Inter- 
mediate Departments. 

This  corresponds  to  the  Grammar  School,  or  Elementary, 
in  secular  education,  and  it  is  often  called  by  tliat  name.  It 
will  embrace  children  from  the  reading  age  to  Confirmation 
or  beyond,  say  fourteen  or  fifteen  3'ears  old.  The  best  method, 
as  suggested,  is  the  Heuristic  or  Source  IMetliod,  so  potent 
and  so  popular  to-day.  This  demands  actual  recourse  to  the 
original  sources  of  information  and  instruction,  i.e.,  the 
Bible,  the  Prayer  Book,  Church  History,  etc.,  as  the  original 
source  of  study,  the  nearest  we  can  get  to  the  sources.  It 
means  putting  the  Bible.  Prayer  Book,  etc.,  tangibly  into 
the  very  hands  of  the  children  for  reference  and  individual 
home  study,  both  in  the  Sunday  School  hour  and  in  tlie 
home  preparation  of  tlie  lessons. 

Grade  III. — Grammar  School.     (About  8  or  1)  years  old). 
Catechism,  Prayer  Book,  Church  Year. 

There  are  three  sul)jccts  with  which  a  child  of  the  Epis- 


GRADING  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  147 

copal  and  Lutheran  Churches  in  this  first  grade  ought  to  be- 
come acquainted,  in  outline  at  least. 

(a)  The  Text  of  the  Catechism,  because  it  is  the  very 
best  memoriter  age  of  the  whole  child  life.  What  is  learned 
noAv  is  practically  never  forgotten. 

(h)  Some  Knowledge  of  How  to  Use  the  Prayer  Book. 
Here  we  require  the  child  to  attend  Public  Worship  at  least 
once  a  week,  not  as  compulsory  Church,  but  as  a  training  in 
the  Services.  But  to  attend  either  intelligently  or  enjoyably, 
he  must  know  how  to  use  the  Prayer  Book.  So,  while  we 
spend  one-half  a  year  on  the  Catechism,  which  is  an  abundant 
period,  if  we  teach  it  rightly,  with  the  use  of  the  Step  Method, 
we  devote  the  second  half-year  to  the  study  of  the  Prayer 
Book. 

(c)  Some  knowledge  of  tlie  Christian  Year.  This  should 
come  noAv  for  three  reasons.  First,  the  great  hindrance  to  a 
proper  series  of  lesson  manuals  in  the  Past  was  the  distortion 
of  any  Course  by  a  desire  to  conform  its  teaching  to  the 
Church  Year.  ISTow  no  course,  even  one  on  the  Life  of  Christ. 
can  be  mapped  out  in  due  proportion,  if  we  follow  the  brief 
Church  Year.  The  Church  Year  was  never  intended  for 
Sunday  School  Lessons,  but  for  Public  Services.  It  needs  to 
be  taught,  however,  for  a  clear  appreciation  of  the  Services. 
Teach  it,  in  connection  with  the  Catechism  and  Prayer  Book, 
every  Sunday  through  the  Course,  devoting  five  minutes 
thereto,  using  the  Deaconess  Patterson  Chart,  Pictures  of 
Events  and  Saints,  the  Coloration  of  the  Day  or  Season,  and 
the  Ehyme  of  the  Christian  Year.  A  good  plan  for  a  brief 
and  interesting  lesson  is  to  mount  a  series  of  large  cards 
(22x28  inches)  with  all  the  penny  pictures  on  that  subject 
(say  Christmas  or  St.  Thomas  Day),  adding  a  strip  of 
colored  ribbon  to  tlie  card  for  the  color  of  the  day,  keeping 
the  series  on  hand  in  tlie  Library,  to  be  loaned  out  as  required 
each  Sundav. 


148  THE  ELKxMENTS  OE  CHILD  STUDY 

Grades  IV.  and  V. — Grammar  School.     (About  9  or  lU  to 
11  or  13  years  old). 

01(1  I'cstaiiu'nt  Stoi'ies. 

Sonic  schools  arc  able  to  combine  the  study  of  (Jrade  III.. 
with  direct  Bible  Work,  and  begin  the  First  Grade  of  the 
Main  School  with  Old  Testament  Stories,  which  we  liavc 
hei'cin  put  as  Crade  11.,  and  make  a  comliination  lesson  each 
Sunday,  dividing  tlie  time  between  Old  Testament  Stories 
and  the  Catechism,  Prayer  Book,  and  Church  Yi'ar.  'I'licre 
is  no  objection  to  this  plan,  cither  practically  oi"  pc(hig(>gi- 
cally,  provided  neither  subject  be  neglected,  and  the  hour  be 
sufficiently  long  for  uninterrupted  study.  The  only  danger 
seems  to  be  the  neglect  or  perfunctory  teaching  of  the 
Catechism,  which,  as  foundation  pi-inciples,  is  too  significant 
to  be  set  aside  to  secondary  place. 

Grade  VI. — Girnuiiiar  Srliool.     (About  11  or  12  years  old). 

Life  of  Jesus  C*hrist. 

XoTE  ox  Map  AVork  vhom  this  Ckade  ox. 

Befi'inninff  with  this  "rade,  or  even  at  the  age  of  ten  in 
the  previous  gi-ade,  maps  ai'c  im})erative  to  successful  teach- 
ing. There  should  be  three  series  of  nuips,  almost  constantly 
in  use  from  this  age  forward  in  all  the  grades,  right  through 
the  so-called  Bible  Classes. 

(1)  SnuiU  class  uuips,  showing  the  physical  contour  of 
the  Holy  Land  and  the  Roman  l^hupirc,  since  much  of  the 
Histoi-y  of  the  Chosen  People  was  coiulitioned  directly  by 
their  environment. 

(2)  Many  small  outline  maps,  in  which  the  pupils  may 
insert  cities,  rivers,  journeys,  etc.,  both  enabling  them  to 
locate  properly  and  permanently,  and  ))roviding  for  interest, 
self-activity,  and  comparison. 

(3)  A  good  set  of  the  best  descriptive  and  historical  maps 
obiainahlc.      These    shoiihl    l)c    foi'    wall    use,    not   too    large, 


GRADING  THE  Sl^XDAY  SCHOOL  149 

with  not  too  many  and  confusing  names  and  drawings ;  clear, 
accurate,  and  distinct.  There  is  a  great  room  for  study  and 
judgment  in  the  selection  of  such  maps.  Some  of  the 
cheapest  are  the  best,  while  the  most  costly  are  the  most  inac- 
curate. It  is  better  to  have  many  small,  clear  maps  scattered 
through  each  room,  than  a  few  large  and  expensive  ones. 
Five  maps  of  St.  Paul's  journeys,  for  example,  hung  low 
down  where  children  can  study  them  at  finger-end,  costing 
$1.00  each,  are  infinitely  more  resultful  than  one  $5.00  map 
hung  high,  and  out  of  clear  range. 

Orade  VII. — Grammar  School.     (About  13  or  13  years  old). 
Junior  Teachings  of  Christ,  or  Apostolic  Leaders. 

In  some  schools  this  grade  is  omitted,  and  the  scholars 
pass  on  to  Grade  VIII.,  on  Old  Testament  History.  There 
is  a  choice  offered  of  either  one  or  two  courses.  Some  schools 
take  up  both  courses,  and  move  the  Old  Testament  History 
Course  one  year  further  on  still. 

Grade  VIII. — Grammar  School.     (About  13  or  14  years  old). 
Old  Testament  History  or  Biography. 

Now  is  the  age  when  the  Historical  Appreciation  is  tuell- 
developed,  and  the  Concrete  Stories  of  the  Old  Testament, 
studied  without  special  regard  to  chronology  and  historic 
setting  in  the  early  grades,  can  be  welded  together  into  a 
l)right  and  vivid  outline  course  on  Old  Testament  History. 
We  therefore  take  this  subject  up  now. 

Grade  I. — High  School,  or  Secondarij  School.      (Al)out   13 

or  14  years  old). 

Life  of  Christ  as  the  Messiah. 

After  an  appreciation  of  the  Preparation  of  the  World 
for  the  Coming  of  Cod's  Son,  Jesus  Christ,  our  Lord,  most 
naturally  comes  the  Study  of  the  Divine  Clirist  as  the  Messiali, 
fulfilling  all  Prophecy.  So  Ave  take  up  tliis  subject,  Avith 
deeper   Thought-Questions,   as   contrasted   with  the   simpler, 


l:)0  THE  ELEIMENTS   OF  CHILD   STUDY 

concrete  Fact-Questions  tliat  characterize  the  Study  of  His 
Life  in  the  earlier  Grade.  As  in  tlie  former  Grades,  Picture 
and  Map  Work  ought  to  he  prominent.  Picture  Biographies, 
written  in  Note  Books,  with  drawings,  maps,  and  longer 
essays,  with  certainly  some  original  research  work,  ought  to 
be  main  features  in  these  classes,  if  really  productive  work 
be  expected. 

Grade  II. — High  School.     (x\))0ut  14  or  15  years  old). 
Christian  Doctrine,  or  Teachings  of  Christ,  the  Messiah. 

It  is  felt  by  a  growing  number  in  the  Church,  that  our 
Religious  Schools  owe  it  to  the  youth  they  take  in  hand,  to 
educate  them  fully  for  their  complete  spiritual  environment. 
Every  scholar  therefore  ought  to  have  a  thorough  course  in 
Church  Doctrine  and  Teachings,  and  not  alone  the  selected 
few  of  the  Confirmation  Class.  Hence  a  course  of  Church 
Doctrine  is  inserted  at  this  point.  This  is  the  age  of  doubt — 
of  intellectual  stonn  and  stress,  of  settling  one's  own  faith 
and  religion.  It  is  seen  in  the  deeper,  abstract,  philosophical 
thought-questions  that  now  crop  up;  in  the  reading  of  infidel 
books,  not  because  they  attract,  but  because  they  seem  to 
answer  the  surging  questions  of  doubt,  and  give  an  ansAver 
to  the  active  reason.  Statements  now  arc  not  taken  for 
granted.  Reason  demands  proof.  Facts  are  carefully 
weighed.  A  reason  for  the  faith  is  demanded,  and  should  be 
given  fearlessly,  candidly,  fruitfully. 

Hence  this  Doctrine  Course  should  be  intellectual,  pro- 
gressive, fearless,  and  thorough,  going  on  the  source  method 
directly  to  the  Catechism,  Prayer  Book,  and  Bible,  giving  a 
complete  review  of  the  Faith  once  delivered  to  the  Saints. 

Fosi-Gnuluaie  School. 
In  the  Post-Graduate  School,  tlie  following  subjects  may 
be  taken,  and  it  would  be  a  good  ])lau  to  allow  tliein  to  be 
chosen  as  elective  courses,  thus  giving  an   incentive   to  the 


GRADING  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  151 

older  scholars  by  an  attractive  list  of  studies,  and  the  prin- 
ciple of  choice  on  tlie  part  of  the  High  School  students. 

The  list  should  include  Apostolic  Church  History,  Church 
History,  the  Epistles  of  the  Xcw  Testament,  the  Prophets  of 
the  Old  Testament,  the  Church  at  "Work  Socially  (Christian 
Sociology),  Modern  IMissions,  History  of  the  Prayer  Book, 
Making  of  the  Bible,  Hymns  and  Hymn  Writers,  Non-Christ- 
ian Religions  and  CJhristianity,  and  Eeligious  Pedagogy. 
The  Best  Practical  Way  to  Set  About  Grading. 

Many  so-called  graded  schools  fail  in  a  few  months,  and 
sometimes  throw  out  the  graded  system  as  the  result,  because 
neither  officers,  teachers,  pupils,  nor  parents  understand 
what  they  are  doing,  or  what  the  graded  system  is,  or  what 
part  they  play  in  the  curriculum  of  the  school. 

Make  a  List  first  of  all  pupils,  arranged  alphabetically, 
by  name.  Indicate  age,  address,  and  Day  School  Grade. 
Arrange  in  Classes  l)y  the  Day  School  Standing  all  third 
grades  together(i.('.,  al:)out  8  years  old)  ;  all  fourth  grades, 
etc.  If  the  school  be  too  small  for  single  grades  of  separated 
boys  and  girls,  use  the  plan  given  for  the  small  school. 
Either  place  boys  and  girls  together,  or  combine  the  two 
adjoining  grades  in  one  class,  according  to  the  Small  School 
Grading  Plan. 

Then  next,  do  not  fail  to  use  a  little  Printer's  Ink. 
Most  schools  fail  right  here.  After  a  year,  the  teachers  and 
pupils  become  discouraged  and  Avant  all  one  subject.  Or 
Miss  Jones  wants  to  teach  the  "interesting  book  Miss  Brown 
has,"  and  sees  no  reason  why  her  class  may  not  have  it.  It 
is  because  the  Teachers  and  Pupils  do  not  know  what  tlie 
system  is,  do  not  grasp  the  Curriculum,  do  not  sec  wliat 
wheel  each  one  is  in  the  general  machinery. 

Issue  a  little  folder  like  the  sample  l)elow.  Print  an 
abundance  of  them.  Circulate  them  freely.  Give  one  to 
every  scholar,  every  parent,  every  teaclier.     Sow  them  broad- 


152 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF  CHIJ.l)   STUDY 


cast  in  the  town.    It  is  good  and  conservative  advertising.     It 
works  well  every  time.    Here  is  the  sample. 


[Pace  1] 


St.  Andrew's  Church  School 
of  Christian  Practice 


Fifth  Avenue  and 

One-hundred-twenty-seventh  Street 

Harlem 

New  York  City 

School  Session   Meets   at  Nine-Thirt})   Sharp 
Each   Lord's   Da^   Morning 

Teachers'  Training  Class,  Mondays,  8:15  P.M. 

(The    Attendance    of    ever})    Teacher    is    Expected, 
for    Efficient    IVorff) 

OUR  MOTTO: 

Every  Scholar  present  Every  Sunday. 

Every  Scholar  present  ON    TIME. 

Every  Scholar  Studying   Every   Lesson   Each   Week 

at  HOME. 

Every  Scholar  Saying    Private    Prayers    at     Home, 

Morning  an&  Evening. 
Every  Parent  Helping  the  Scholar  in  Home  Work. 
Every  Scholar  in  Attendance     at     at     least     ONE 

CHURCH  SERVICE  EACH  WEEK. 

Every  Scholar  a  Christian,     a     Churchman,     and     a 

Becoming  Example. 
Every  Young   Person   in   Every   Home,    from   Three 

to  Twenty-one  a  Scholar  with   US   HERE. 

1912--1913 


GRADING  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  153 

[Page   2] 

OUR  GRADING  AND  CURRICULUM 

The  KinJergarlen  School  (to  6  years). 

Stories   from   the   Old  Testament,   New   Testament,   and 
Nature.     Kindergarten  methods. 

The  Primary  School  (to  Third  Grade  Public  School). 
Similar  Stories  with  older  treatment. 

The    Grammar  School. 
GRADE,     PUBLIC    SCHOOL. 

III. — Class    of     192! — Catechism,    Christian    Year,    Old 
Testament   Stories. 

IV.— Class   of    1920— Use   of   Prayer   Book,    Old   Testa- 
ment Stories,  Christian  Year. 

V. — Class  of    1919 — Junior  Historical   Life  of   Christ. 

VI. — Class  of    1918 — Early   Christian    Leaders. 

VII. — Class  of    1917 — Old  Testament  History  as  the  Prep- 
aration  for  the   Messiah. 

VIII.— Class  of    1916— Life  of  Christ   the   Messiah. 

The  High  School. 

IH — Class  of    1915 — The  History  of  the  Apostolic  Church. 
II  H — Class  of   1914 — Christian  Doctrine. 
H— Class  of    1913— Church    History. 

The   Posl-Craduate   School. 
Normal   and    Bible   Classes. 
Elective  Subjects. 

Special   Classes  will  be  organized   for  Young   Men   and   for 
Young   Women. 

(Note — All   Scholars   will   be   assigned   to   Classes   ONLY 
by   the    Principal    or   the  Superintendent.) 


154  THE  ELEMENTS  OF   CHILD   STUDY 

[Page  3] 

SCHOOL  RULES 

We  want  no  unnecessary  Rules.  Rules  are  only  intended 
for  USE.  They  are  to  help  each  one  to  help  each  one 
else,  so  that,  without  selfish  infringement  of  rights,  each 
one  may  do  his  work,  "mind  his  own  busmess"  and  as- 
sist others  to  do  likewise.  Therefore  ALL  Scholars  should 
delight  for  the  good,  honor,  and  welfare  of  the  School,  in 
seeing  that   these   few    Rules   are  properly   KEPT. 

For  All 

Be  REGULAR  and  Always  on  TIME.  This  School  ex- 
pects it,  just  as  Public  School  does.  Study  the  Les- 
son AT  HOME  FAITHFULLY  each  week. 

For  Teachers 
All    the    Rules    on    "Rule    Sheet"    with    such    items    below 
as  concerns   them. 

For  Scholars 
Always   get  Special    Permission   from   the   Teacher   to   leave 

the  Class  at  any   time  during  Lesson   Hour. 
'tS'Remember    that    Inattention,    Loud    Talking,    Noise,    etc., 

disturb    the    rights    of    OTHERS.      You    have    rights, 

respect   theirs.      Do  not  injure   the  School. 
We  Expect  Just  the  Same  Conduct  in   EVERY  WAY  in 

the    Church    School    that    you    show    in    Public    School. 

This   will    guide   you,   in   place   of   many   Rules.      This 

is  primarily  a  School. 
«3rYOU    ARE    EXPECTED    to    Attend    at    least    ONE 

SERVICE  IN  CHURCH  A  WEEK.     This  is  not 

"Compulsory  Church,"  but  our  duty  to  train  you  in 
proper  Worship,  just  as  we  do  in  the  Bible.  You  will 
be  marked  for  this  the  following  Lord's  Day. 

A  REPORT  will  be  sent  HOME  to  your  Parents  regularly 
showing  Attendance,  both  at  School  and  Church, 
Conduct,  Offering,  and  Study  of  Lesson. 

All  Diplomas,  Certificates,  Honors,  and  Graduation  de- 
pend on  the  high  Standing  of  these  Records.  It  is 
to  your  personal  advantage  to  stand  well. 

Remember  that  the  Purpose  of  this  School  is  YOUR 
GOOD,  to  help  YOU  to  become  a  worthy,  noble 
man  or  woman,  a  credit  to  your  God,  your  Church, 
your  Home,  your  Country.  Help  us  to  maintain  a 
high  standard  for  the  School,  and  to  make  it  the 
best  and  most  helpful  School   in   Harlem. 

Bring  EVERY  other  Yo-jng  Person,  not  already  connected 
with  any  School,  and  we  will  try  to  help  such  a  one 
as  well.  The  Spirit  of  JESUS  CHRIST,  our  Saviour, 
is  the  Spirit  of  Service  and  Helpfulness  to  OTHERS. 


i 


GRADING  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  155 

[Page  4] 

LIST  OF  OFFICERS  AND  TEACHERS 


The  plan  of  putting  "Class  of/'  etc.,  is  far  better  psy- 
eliologically  than  Class  I.,  Class  II.,  etc.,  or  even  than  Class 
A,  Class  B,  etc.  The  moral  effect  on  the  pupils  is  to  keep 
them  banded  together  as  a  Class  \init,  and  to  hold  them  in 
the  School  until  the  graduating  point.  They  do  not  drop  out 
so  readily  in  this  way.  Some  Schools  prefer  not  to  commence 
"Class  of"  nomenclature  until  adolescence  (say  13  or  13 
years  old),  using  "Grade  I.,"  etc.,  earlier,  with  the  idea  in 
mind  that  young  children  may  be  discouraged  by  looking 
too  far  ahead. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  is  a  Graded  Sunday  School?     Explain  Fully. 

2.  On  what  principles  is  the  Graded  Sunday  School  based? 

3.  What  is  practical  Grading? 

4.  What  basis  of  Grading  is  the  best  to  follow?     Why? 

5.  How  would  you  grade  a  small  school?     Map  out  a  definite  plan 

for  such  a  school. 
G.    On    what    principles    would    a    proper    Curriculum    be    based? 
Explain. 

7.  Show  how  these  principles  are  followed  in  the  sample  Curriculum 

given. 

8.  Explain  the  principles  of  the  Kindergarten  and  Primary  Schools, 

showing  why  certain  studies  are  taken,  how  they  are  treated 
and  how  psychological  instincts  are  met  by  such  treatment. 

9.  Do  the  same  for  Grade  I.,  Grammar  School. 

10.  Map   out   a   definite   Curriculum    from   Grade   II.,   Grammar   to 

High  School,  showing  i:)rinciples  and  their  application. 

11.  What  subjects  should  be  considered  in  the  High  and  Post  Grad- 

uate Schools? 

12.  What  mechanical  devices  are  helpful  in  securing  intelligent  co- 

operation of  teachers,  pupils,  and  parents? 


SYLLABUS    OF   CHAPTER   X. 

HOW  TO    PREPARE   THE   LESSON 

SUGGESTED  HEADING: 

How  TO  Plan  the  Lessox,  lirotrn. 

How  to  Conduct  the  Recitation,  McMurry. 

The  IMethod  of  the  Recitation,  McMurry. 

SUMMARY. 

The  Lesson. 

Needful  Steps:  1.  Prayer — [a)  For  Guidance  at  Start;  {h)  For 
Application  and  for  Pupils'  Needs,  at  the  End.  2.  Wide  Reading. 
3.  Keep  at  least  One  Lesson  Ahead  of  Pupils,  enabling  one  to 
plan  out  Home  Study  for  the  Class,  and  Assign  New  Lesson 
Intelligently  at  the  Close  of  Hour.  4.  Have  a  Good  Teacher's 
Reference  Bible  and  use  it.  5.  Use  a  Proper  Text  Book — Source 
Method,  if  possible. 

Proper  Text  Books  Should  Have:  1.  Broad,  Suggestive  Preliminary 
Review  Questions;  2.  Questions  for  Home  Study  with  Written 
Answers;  3.  Questions  for  Class  Discussion;  4.  Research  Ques- 
tions; 5.  Manual  Work. 

These  all  follow  the  Standard  Ilcrliartian  Steps,  i.e.,  1.  Preparation; 
2.  Presentation;  3.  Association  or  Elaboration;  4.  Generalization, 
Recapitulation,  Reproduction;  5.  Practical  Application. 

Otlier  Points  in  Lesson  Preparation — 

Lesson  Title.     Striking,  Now,  Attractive. 

Question  Metliod  best  for  Introduction. 

Correlation  with  Other  Fields  of  Knowledge. 

Induction   a    Better   Method   tlian   Deduction,   and   always   to   be 

used  with  Younger  Cliildren. 
Importance  of  Frequent  Reviews. 
Examinations    test    our    Work    as    well    as    that    of    the    Pupils. 

Show  the  way  the  Class  liave  Apprehended  the  Teaching. 
Typos  in  Teaching  an  Aid  to  Time  in  saving  Repetition  of  Same 
Characterislics. 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  THE  LESSON  157 

Gain  the  "Point  of  Contact"  in  Teaching. 

Children  do  not  See  Cause  and  Effect  when  young. 

What  One  Knows,  One  Knows  only  by  Experience. 

The  Small  Child  Knows  only  the  Concrete. 

What  is  First,  as  Cause,  may  be  Last  as  Experience  to  tlie 

Child. 
Always  Proceed  fi'om  the  Known  to  the  Unknown. 
How  Much  Children  Know. 

Compare  Country  and  City  Children. 
Explore  Children's  Minds. 
Note  Their  Small  Vocabulary. 
Apperception  is  only  Grafting  the  Known  to  the  Unknowr 


CHAPTER  X. 

HOW   TO    PREPARE   THE   LESSON 

How  to  Prepare  to  Study  the  Lesson. 

(1)  There  is  one  tretnendous,  priinordinl  "First  Step" 
for  a  Sunday  School  Teacher  to  take,  in  commencing  the 
preparation  of  the  Lesson  Study;  and  yet,  strange  to  say, 
it  is  the  one  step  above  all  others  that  many  teachers  entirely 
omit.  It  is  prayer,  for  if  ever  we  require  the  help  of  God's 
Holy  Spirit,  "to  guide  us  unto  all  Truth,"  to  take  of  the 
tilings  of  God  and  show  them  unto  us,  it  is  here  where  we 
are  preparing  to  guide  other  immortal  souls  than  our  own 
into  the  "Way  of  Truth,"  into  the  plains  of  peace. 

The  first  law  of  the  lesson  is  that  of  Prayer,  not  a  prayer. 
Between  jirayer  and  a  prayer  there  is  all  the  difference  that 
there  is  between  heat  and  cold.  A  Prayer  may  be  dead,  cold, 
formal,  lifeless.  Prayer  is  the  spirit  permeating  tlie  charac- 
ter. Prayer  is  a  state;  an  atmosphere  surrounding  a  life. 
The  right  knowledge  of  the  Sunday  School  Lesson  is  possible 
only  through  the  help  of  tlio  Spirit.  Prayer  is  tlie  breatli 
of  the  Spirit. 

What  a  teacher  ought  to  do  is  to  kneel  down  at  first,  and, 
as  it  were,  bury  the  liead  in  tlio  arm  and  sliut  out  tbe  world. 
It  may  not  be  so  much  what  the  teacher  says,  l)ut  the  atmos- 
phere that  will  pervade  her,  as  a  result  of  that  five  minutes 
of  communion  with  God.  There  will  be  a  zeal,  an  interest, 
an  alertness,  an  apj^lication,  a  patience  to  dig  out  details,  and 
go  into  the  deepest  research.  The  ])ractieal  application  of 
the  spiritual  truth  to  tlie  lives  of  scholars  will  never  come 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  THE  LESSON  159 

from  mere  cold,  intellectual  preparation.  It  needs  God's 
Spirit.  And  the  shorter  the  time  for  preparation,  the  more 
necessary  is  this  primal  period  of  Prayer. 

There  is  another  period  of  Prayer  that  will  come  later 
on,  at  the  close  of  the  lesson.  The  first  was  the  communion 
with  God,  getting  in  touch  with  Him,  obtaining  His  guidance, 
and  the  atmosphere  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  closing  Prayer, 
after  the  work  has  been  done,  as  a  Prayer  of  Application.  The 
teacher  now  kneels,  and,  with  the  lesson  material  in  mind, 
and  the  individual  scholars,  their  natures  and  their  needs, 
in  view,  bears  each  name  personally  before  the  Throne  of 
Grace,  that  His  Spirit  may  prepare  the  hearts  of  the  scholars 
to  receive  the  ingrafted  word,  and  guide  the  teacher  into  the 
selection  of  the  right  material,  the  right  treatment,  and  the 
right  words  to  make  God's  work  most  effective. 

The  teacher  herself  will  be  spiritually  uplifted  and  will 
gain  perhaps  more  than  the  scholars  as  the  result  of  these 
Periods  of  Prayer.  "It  is  axiomatic,"  says  Professor  Burton, 
"that  the  teacher  who  gains  no  spiritual  help  from  his  study 
will  impart  none  in  his  teachings."  If  his  method  of  study 
is  such  that  it  brings  him  no  uplift  or  strength,  it  can  hardly 
have  a  different  effect  upon  his  pupils.  Dr.  Trumbull  adds : 
"The  teacher's  spirit,  the  teacher's  character,  and  the  teach- 
er's life  impress  and  influence  the  pupil  quite  as  much  as 
the  teacher's  words." 

(2)  The  second  recommendation  is  "Read!  read!  read!" 
There  is  no  way  to  absorb  the  general,  all-around  knowledge 
necessary  for  teaching  any  lesson  for  a  half-hour,  without 
prolonged,  patient  Eeading.  The  Sunday  School  is  no  place 
for  "shirkers."  It  is  no  place  for  the  lady  of  fashion,  who 
desires  merely  the  "honor"  of  being  a  teacher  in  Church,  and 
has  "no  time  to  prepare  the  lesson  until  Sunday  morning." 
Read  much  and  read  widely.  Do  not  be  content  with  just 
enough  knowledge  to  answer  the  printed  Questions.     Do  not 


160  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

be  content,  either,  Mith  tlie  small  condensed  summary,  con- 
tained in  the  Teacher's  Aid.  Get  other  books  recommended, 
either  by  purchase,  or  from  some  library.  There  are  few- 
schools  that  Mali  not  gladly  make  a  strenuous  effort  to  supply 
books  to  any  teacher  who  is  really  willing  to  study,  and 
perfect  knowledge.  The  difficulty  is  that  the  generality  of 
teachers  take  up  teaching  as  a  "side  play." 

The  teacher  should  visit  the  public  schools,  and  should 
spend  a  week  seeing  the  various  studies  of  the  particular 
grade  which  she  is  teaching  in  the  Sunday  School.  She 
should  also  examine  their  Public  School  text  books,  in  order 
that  she  may  know  how  much  they  know,  and  may  correlate 
the  Public  School  work  with  the  Sunday  School  work. 

(3)  Keep  at  least  one  entire  Lesson  ahead  of  your  pupils, 
both  in  order  that  you  may  be  able  to  give  suggestions  to 
them,  in  assigning  work  for  the  next  Lesson,  that  they  may 
avoid  the  difficulties  you  have  discovered ;  and  also  that,  when 
you  come  to  teach  that  lesson,  it  may  be  a  second  review  to 
you,  thoroughly  familiar  in  all  its  phases  and  sides,  from 
your  own  first  review  that  week.  Thus  you  will  study  two 
lessons  a  week;  one  in  advance  and  in  review  for  the  teaching 
that  ensuing  Sunday. 

In  a  well-ordered  Sunday  School,  if  the  entire  session  is 
to  be  one  hour  in  length,  the  opening  service  ought  not  to 
take  more  than  five  or  ten  minutes.  The  lesson  period  should 
have  forty  minutes  assigned  to  it,  which  leaves  fifteen  minutes 
to  the  routine  work  of  the  school,  i.e.,  marking  the  class, 
taking  up  the  collection,  giving  out  the  library  books,  an- 
nouncements, and  closing  service. 

The  forty  minutes  of  the  lesson  liour  should  never  be 
interrupted.  It  is  not  the  time  for  the  Superintendent  or  tlie 
Secretary  to  go  from  class  to  class,  and  chat  with  the  young 
ladies.  It  is  the  period  sacred  to  the  teachers  and  the  pupils. 
Ten  minutes  before  that  period  is  ended,  some  signal  should 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  THE  LESSON  161 

be  given  from  tlie  desk^  which  means  that  there  remain  ten 
minutes,  five  of  which  can  be  devoted  to  finishing  the  present 
lesson,  gathering  up  loose  ends,  etc.,  and  live  minutes  to  talk 
over  and  explain  the  succeeding  lesson.  The  teacher  ought 
to  be  able  to  say,  when  that  point  is  reached :  "Now,  scholars, 
open  5'^our  text  books,  and  we  will  talk  over  next  Sunday's 
lesson." 

One  should  make  it  a  general  rule  that  on  Monday,  or  not 
later  than  Tuesday,  one  will  study  the  advance  lesson.  On 
Thursday,  and  not  later  than  Friday,  one  will  review  the  les- 
son to  be  taught  on  the  next  Sunday;  which,  of  course,  has 
been  first  studied  on  the  Monday  or  Tuesday  of  the  preceding 
week.  Thus,  all  through  the  week,  the  lessons  will  be  in 
mind,  and  material  along  the  line  of  illustrations  will  be 
constantly  acquired,  as  the  teacher  lives  through  the  week 
days  intervening. 

(4)  Have  a  Teachers'  Reference  Bible,  if  possible — such 
as  the  cheap  $3.75  book  known  as  the  "Combination  Bible," 
which  has  both  Authorized  and  Revised  Versions  with  all 
the  usual  Aids,  Concordance,  and  Maps.  At  least  have  a 
small  Bible  of  your  own,  and  mark  it  in  ink,  as  need  requires 
for  subsequent  use.  (IMrs.  Menzie's  Marking  system  is  not 
a  bad  one  to  use) . 

(5)  The  Text  Booh  is  the  crux  of  the  teaching.  With 
Question-and- Answer  Books  you  can  do  little  but  parrot-work. 
You  are  a  machine.  Your  individuality  is  taken  away.  Most 
of  the  suggestions  following  will  be  useless  with  such  a  book. 
With  any  other  System  supplying  Questions  for  which  An- 
swers are  to  be  sought  from  the  Bible  (or  even  printed  sec- 
tions of  it),  or  from  the  Prayer  Book,  you  have  some  measure 
of  freedom. 

The  best  Text  Book,  however,  is  one  that  is  built  on  the 
Heuristic  {i.e.,  Finding)  or  Source  Method,  and  it  becomes, 
then,  barely  more  than  a  guide  for  research,  a  suggestive 


162  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Handbook  Outline  for  study.  The  development  of  the  Les- 
son in  Class  then  lies  more  in  your  own  hands. 

Text  Books  to-day  on  this  method  have  the  following 
characteristics:  (a)  Broad,  suggestive  Eeview  Questions,  for 
Eapid  Oral  Answers,  covering  a  wide  outlook,  and  making 
pedagogical  connection  of  the  new  lesson,  with  those  of  the 
series  thus  far.  (b)  Questions  for  Home  Study  with  Pre- 
pared Answers,  written  in  order,  first,  to  fix  the  knowledge 
more  firmly  through  pedagogical  act  of  driving  it  home  by 
writing  it  down;  second,  to  ascertain  that  sufficient  home 
study  has  been  accorded  it.  (c)  Questions  for  Class  Discus- 
sion, based  on  the  general  Home  Study,  new,  live,  interesting, 
provoking  active  expression,  in  place  of  the  usual  dead,  dry, 
monotonous  recitation.  (d)  Questions  to  be  assigned  for 
Particular  Eesearch,  such  as  certain  obscure  Geographical, 
Historical,  Archseological,  or  Critical  points,  (e)  Provision 
in  the  amplest  form  for  the  use  of  Maps,  Pictures,  Illustra- 
tive Objects ;  for  the  development  of  Practical  Handwork,  the 
making  of  Maps,  Objects,  drawing  of  routes,  insertion  of 
cities  on  outline  maps,  etc.  Such  Lessons  demand  work,  hard 
work.  They  are  difficult  to  teach,  and  are  apt  to  be  most 
unsatisfactory  under  incompetent,  lazy,  or  indifferent  teach- 
ers; but  they  are  the  best;  the  ideal,  to  be  sure;  but  just  in 
accord  with  the  present  Day  School  System,  and  at  once  recog- 
nized as  such,  and  appreciated  and  respected  accordingly  by 
all  bright,  earnest  scholars. 

All  forms  of  Teaching  have  definite  logical  steps  or 
method.  As  Inductive  Teaching  is  the  more  usual  form 
to-day,  there  are  many  who  Avrongly  imagine  that  this  type 
is  the  only  one  to  which  formal  steps  may  be  adapted.  We 
will  study  the  formal  steps  in  this  type  first,  before  consider- 
ing the  other  types. 


HOW  TO  PRl'JPARE  THE  LESSOX  1G3 

The  Herbartian  or  Formal  Steps  in  Inductive  Studies. 

The  teaching  scheme  which  follows  we  owe  in  its  complete- 
ness to  the  disciples  of  the  German  philosopher  and  educa- 
tionist, Herbart,  of  whom,  as  compared  with  another  f anions 
inventor  of  methods,  it  has  been  well  said  Herbart  magnified 
the  work  of  the  teacher;  Froebel  magnified  the  work  of  the 
child.  It  is  just  because  Herbart  thought  so  much  about  the 
teacher's  part  in  education,  that  his  ideas  have  spread  so 
rapidly.  His  hints  come  rapidly  to  hand  and  are  capable 
of  immediate  application.  This  teaching  scheme  consists  of 
five  divisions  or  stages,  which  may  be  adapted,  according  to 
subject  and  circumstances,  either  to  a  single  lesson  or  to  a 
series — one,  or  perhaps  two,  of  the  divisions  forming  a  single 
lesson  of  the  series.     These  steps  are : 

(a)  Preparation.  Just  as  the  farmer  plows  his  ground, 
and  prepares  it  for  seed,  you  should  prepare  your  class  for  the 
new  lesson.  Write  out  Questions,  making  up  new  ones,  differ- 
ent from  those  in  your  text  book.  Be  prepared  to  call  up  the 
related  knowledge  that  is  lying  dormant  in  the  minds  of  3^our 
children.  This  step  corresponds  to  the  Preliminary  Review 
Questions  at  the  beginning  of  each  lesson.  No  matter  how 
hurried  the  time  may  be,  these  must  never  be  omitted,  because 
they  form  the  connecting  link  which  joins  the  unknown  to 
the  known.  Imagine  the  farmer  saying:  "Oh,  Spring  is  so 
late,  and  I  have  so  much  to  do,  and  so  many  fields  to  plant, 
and  my  time  is  so  short,  I  will  omit  the  plowing,  and  will 
just  sow  the  seed!"  The  plowing  is  essential  to  the  growth 
of  the  seed,  and  can  never  be  omitted,  and  yet  some  teachers 
think  the  review  unessential.  The  Eeview  Questions  should 
be  broad  and  striking,  welding  together  all  the  previous  ana- 
logous material ;  not  minute  in  detail.  For  example,  suppose 
the  class  has  had  four  lessons  on  the  Life  of  David,  up  to  his 
meeting  with  Goliath.     A  poor  Review  Question  would  be. 


104  'I'llK    KLKMENT.S  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

"111  what  city  was  J)avid  born?"'  A  good  Review  Question 
would  be,  "Will  someone,  whom  I  shall  name,  tell  me  in  four 
sentences  the  four  chief  events  of  David's  life  up  to  our 
present  lesson?"  The  scholars  begin  to  think.  "Four  chief 
events;  does  she  mean  foui*  in  one  lesson;  or  one  in  each  of 
the  four;  or  two  in  one  and  one  of  each  of  the  other  two? 
What  are  the  four  chief  events?"  Every  scholar  is  mentally 
reviewing  and  welding  together  all  the  preceding  lessons. 

Of  course,  with  younger  scholars  this  method  of  historic 
])erspective  would  not  be  used,  but  the  Review  Questions 
would,  nevertheless,  be  of  a  broad,  inclusive  nature. 

(b)  Presentation.  Just  as  Preparation  theoretically  cor- 
responds to  the  Review  Questions  in  a  properly-prepared 
Heuristic  Book,  so  Presentation  corresponds  to  the  Questions 
for  Home  Study,  only  you  want  to  prepare  your  own  set,  for 
your  own  benefit,  if  you  can.  At  any  rate,  you  intend  to 
instruct,  and  not  simply  hear  recitation;  so  you  will  present 
new  material.  In  other  words,  you  will  sow  tlie  seed  in  the 
ground  prepared. 

(c)  Association  or  Elahomtion.  It  is  not  what  we  eat, 
but  what  we  digest,  that  is  of  use.  It  is  not  what  you  recite 
glibly  to  the  child,  rattling  it  off  perchance  from  scribbled 
notes;  but  what  he  appropriates  that  is  to  "build  up  character, 
efficient  for  the  best."  Apperception,  we  say,  is  to  assimilate 
the  new  material.  Simply  put,  this  means  you  are  to  be 
sure  the  children  understand,  take  in,  appreciate  Avhat  you 
teach  them.  Build  up  your  illustrations  ai'ound  your  teach- 
ing. The  whole  benefit  of  all  subsequent  teaching  may  be 
lost  if  you  carelessly  miss  making  the  connecting  link  clear 
and  lucid. 

(d)  The  fourtli,  step  is  variously  termed  Oeneralization, 
Classification,  Recapitulation,  Reproduction,  Review.  It  is 
really  getting  at  the  principle,  so  that  the  knowledge  can  be 
re-stated  by  the  pupils  in  a  new  form,  in  a  wide,  general 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  THE  LESSON  165 

manner,  as  2:)art  of  the  whole  field  of  knowledge.  Many  of  the 
Thought  Questions  contained  in  Questions  for  Discussion  in 
Class  are  intended  to  embody  this  idea. 

One  of  the  best  ways  to  accomplish  this  would  be  by 
stopping  every  five  minutes  or  so,  and  ask  a  scholar  to  tell 
the  class  what  has  been  covered  during  the  preceding  interval. 
Or  this  may  be  secured  in  another  way — having  talked  about 
a  journey,  we  can  review  it  by  drawing  it  on  the  map;  or, 
when  we  have  discussed  an  object,  by  explaining  a  model  of 
it,  or  describing  a  picture  that  may  be  reproduced.  One  can 
teach  the  story  of  the  Nativity,  and  review  it  by  a  series  of 
pictures  by  which  the  salient  points  surrounding  the  Nativity 
are  re-elucidated. 

(e)  The  last  step  is  Practical  Application;  in  religious 
fields  expressed  by  the  Avords,  '"'The  Moral."  Sometimes  this 
is  to  be  stated;  sometimes  hinted  at;  sometimes  left  for  the 
scholars  to  see  it  plainly  written  all  over  the  topic.  If  Habit 
and  Character  be  our  aim,  then  there  comes  in  the  Inquiry, 
"How  have  the  Teachings  of  the  various  Lessons  functioned, 
or  applied  practical!)^,  in  the  outside,  daily  lives  of  your 
children?''  This  is  the  real  test  of  all  good  work;  and  it  is 
probably  not  too  strong  a  point  to  insist  on,  that  the  teacher 
who  is  not  influencing  the  lives  of  the  scholars  in  some  way 
for  good,  is  failing  in  the  best  ideals  of  character-building. 

The  Opposite  or  Deductive  Method  has  its  Formal  Steps  Likewise. 

(1)  "TJic  first  of  the  Formal  Steps  in  the  Deductive 
Recitation  is  the  presentation  of  the  new  prohlcni  to  he  solved, 
the  (picstion  to  lie  answered,  or  the  example  to  he  known. 
This  direct  offering  of  new  matter  is  assumed  to  arouse  curi- 
osity and  effort,  without  any  preliminary  stirring  up  of 
motivation  by  formal  appeal  to  old  interests." 

(2)  "The  second  stage  is  not  the  presentation  of  some 
new  facts,  hut  the  offering  of  some  general  truth  that  must 


l(i()  THE  ELEiMEXTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

he  learned  as  a  truUi,  and  is  Uien  available  for  use  as  a  rule, 
or  law.  Upon  tlio  suggestion  that  this  is  the  fourth,  or  gener- 
alization,  stage  of  the  other  kind  of  lesson,  it  becomes  apparent 
that  this  deductive  lesson  is  applicable,  not  to  informational, 
but  to  logical,  studies.  In  the  deductive  lesson,  one  jumps 
upon  the  shoulders  of  one's  ancestors,  and  sees  from  that 
higher  view-j)oint." 

"(3)  The  third  slage  is  the  sohdion  of  llic  /inihlciii.  (I) 
The  fourth  stage  is  drill  upon  many  problems." 

"To  put  the  matter  more  simply:  The  deductive  lesson 
has  four  stops — the  case  in  hand,  the  generalization,  tlie 
application,  and  drill.  Though  apparently  much  easier, 
because  offering  less  steps  than  the  inductive  lesson,  it  is  in 
reality,  in  most  instances,  a  more  difficult  method  when 
adequately  and  successfully  followed.  To  teach  the  rule,  or 
the  generalization,  as  a  truth  of  authority,  requires  an  appeal 
to  memory  and  to  the  understanding  at  once,  without  the  aid 
of  the  details  that  lend  interest  to  the  inductive  lesson." 

"A    Third     Kind    of    Recitation    is    the    so-called    'Question-and- 
Answer,'   or  'Heuristic'    Recitation." 

"This  kind  of  recitation  assumes  that,  before  it  there  has 
been  either  a  series  of  other  kinds  of  recitations,  by  which 
the  jDupils  have  accumulated  information,  or  else  that  there 
has  been  a  study  lesson  l)y  way  of  preparation  for  the  (juiz- 
zing." 

"(1)  Open  into  the  subject  loitli  questions  that  have  the 
goal  in  view.  To  this  arfirmative  principle,  there  is  a  negative 
correlate.  Do  not  begin  with  questions  upon  topics  well 
forward  or  otherwise  within  the  subject." 

"(2)  Proceed  ivilli  questions  that  apportion  the  time  duly 
as  between  the  topics,  emphasizing  those  of  importance,  mini- 
mizing the  relatively  unimportant.  ,  This  principle  also  has 
its  negative  correlates.  AYe  should  not  delay  too  long  upon 
any  points.    We  should  skip  no  essential  points." 


Il(n\"  TO  PREPARE  THE  LESSON 


1G7 


"(3)  Let  the  questions  follow  in  logical  order.  This  may 
be  the  order  of  sequence  in  timO;,  or  of  nearness  in  space,  or 
of  cause-and-effect,  or  of  any  other  normal  association  of 
ideas.  The  correlate  of  this  is:— Do  not  digress  from  the 
main  line  of  the  review." 

"(4)  Move  forward.  Do  not  circle  about  any  topic.  Do 
not  revive  a  topic  already  passed — unless  to  use  it  in  another 
important  connection." 

"(5)  Approach  the  concluding  topics  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  prepare  for  the  ending.  The  negative  correlate  of  this 
principle  is : — Avoid  an  anti-climax." 

'•'(G)  End  ivith  questions  that  develop  the  conclusion 
fully;  and  stop." 

There  are  other  forms  of  Lessons  which  are  not  studied 
particularly  in  the  Sunday  School,  such  as  Scientific  Studies, 
Exercises  and  Eeading  Lessons.  All  of  these  have  their  formal 
steps  as  well,  but  the  study  of  them  does  not  concern  our 
purpose  now.  For  the  sake  of  clearness  we  will  summarize 
the  formal  steps  in  three  types  of  Lessons  which  we  have 
considered.  They  are  given  by  Professor  Chancellor,  in  his 
"Class  Teaching  and  Management,"  page  G2. 


Informational 

Studi 

ies. 

Review  Lessons. 

Inductive  Eecitatiox. 

Heuristic    (Questiox-axd- 

1. 

Preparation   ( sub-step, 

aim). 

Answer)   Recitatiox. 

2. 

Presentation. 

1. 

Direction. 

3. 

Association. 

2. 

Rate. 

4. 

Generalization. 

3. 

Route. 

5. 

Application. 

,    4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 

Stations. 
Sections. 
Approach. 
Arrival. 

Logical  Studies. 
Deductive  Recitatiox. 

1.  Presentation  of  problem    (or  example). 

2.  Rule  for  solution    (or  answer). 

3.  Solution   (application  of  rule). 

4.  Drill  upon  problems   (under  the  rule). 


1(!8  THK   ]-:i.K-MKXT.S  01^^  CHILD  STUDY 

The  Lesson  Title. 

Dr.  Marianna  C!.  Brcv.'n  says  that  the  lesson  title  very 
often  may  seem  unimportant.  If  unimportant,  then  uninter- 
esting. But  while  we  dismiss  the  matter  of  tlie  lesson  title 
as  uninteresting,  we  forget  that  the  cliild  judges  of  the 
interest  of  what  is  to  follow  by  this  same  neglected  title. 
"Tell  a  child  that  you  are  going  to  talk  about  'Samuel/ 
and  if  the  child  does  not  happen  to  already  know  of  Samuel, 
you  might  as  well  have  said  Methuselah,  or  any  other  name. 
Tell  the  same  child  that  you  are  going  to  talk  about  'A  little 
Boy  to  whom  God  spoke,'  and  you  have  aroused  both  his 
sympathy  and  his  curiosity." 

The  Question   IVIethod  in   Introduction. 

Dr.  Brown  says:  "The  introduction  ought  almost  always 
to  be  according  to  the  question  method.  Without  some  response 
from  the  cliild,  we  cannot  tell  when  we  have  come  in  contact 
with  his  life,  or  when  we  have  aroused  his  interest.  Each 
Sunday  he  comes  to  Sunday  School  in  a  different  mood. 
Some  days  a  single  reference  to  a  subject  would  arouse  his 
entire  being.  Other  days  that  subject  is  far  from  his 
tlioughts.  We  want  to  have  his  answers,  in  order  io  know 
when  our  introduction  has  accomplished  its  work. 

Correlation. 

This  is  a  much  abused  word  for  a  very  simple  thing.  It 
means  merely  the  realization  that  the  child  is  a  unit,  and 
that  the  Sunday  School  should  take  cognizance  of  the  facts 
that  have  been  taught  in  the  Day  School ;  that  tlie  so-called 
secular  knowledge  of  the  child  is  a  part  of  his  general 
knowledge;  that  the  Sunday  School  teacher  should  learn  just 
how  far  the  child  has  studied  in  the  Day  School,  and  should 
make  use  of  that  knowledge  in  cross  references  in  the  Sunday 
School  lesson. 


now  TO  PRl^M'AllK  TllK  JJ<:8S0N  109 

Deduction  Versus  Induction. 

Of  course,  wc  have  all  learned  in  school  the  merely  abstract 
definitions,  that  Deduction  means  jjroceeding  from  the  general 
to  the  particular,  and  Induction  means  proceeding  from  the 
particular  to  the  general;  that  Deduction  states  the  rule,  and 
then  seeks  or  supplies  examples;  that  Induction  supplies  ex- 
amples, and  then  seeks  the  rule.  However,  in  teaching  there 
is  room  for  both;  each  has  its  place.  At  the  Opening  of  a 
lesson.  Induction  ought  to  be  the  means  employed;  but,  as 
we  advance  and  gain  knowledge,  Deduction  is  useful  to  revise 
our  work,  and  secure  our  rules.  Both  are  used  in  Day  School ; 
although  Induction  is  the  more  general  method. 

As  we  apply  this  in  our  Sunday  School  work,  we  see  that 
the  Catechism  is  par  excellence  a  pure  example  of  the  deduc- 
tive method.  Yet,  for  memory's  sake,  as  well  as  for  practical 
religious  reasons,  we  want  to  teach  the  Catechism  at  an  early 
age.  How  can  it  be  done  ?  There  was  a  time  when  we  recog- 
nized a  distinction  in  Day  School  studies,  by  speaking  of  the 
subjects  of  arithmetic  and  grammar  as  the  formal  studies. 
Yet  in  the  Kindergarten  to-day,  grammar  and  arithmetic 
are  frequently  taught  by  the  inductive  method.  In  languages 
this  is  called  the  Natural  Method. 

A  generation  ago  we  learned  the  rules  of  grammar  first, 
and  then  applied  them.  jSTow  we  learn  the  language,  and  then 
the  rules.  The  younger  the  scholars,  the  more  necessary  the 
Natural  or  Inductive  Method.  High  school  students  can 
frequently  well  dispense  with  the  Inductive  Method,  and  use 
the  Deductive  Method.  The  point  is,  that  Deduction  cannot 
be  appreciated  until  the  child  can  see  relations,  the  cause  and 
effect,  the  abstract. 

Now  the  Catechism  can  be  taught,  and  is  taught  in  the 
best  schools,  by  the  Inductive  Method.  The  individual  truths 
are  taught,  illustrated  by  the  Inductive  setting  of  the  particu- 
lar examples  of  Old  Testament  or  New  Testament;  then  later 


170  THE  ELE.MENTS  OF  Cllll.J)  STUDY 

the  Eule  is  fomiulaictl.  Dr.  A.  A.  Butlei-  has  covered  this 
point  very  fully  in  his  (Jiiuuciimans  ]\Iaxual^  on  page  112, 
following. 

The   Importance  of   Reviews. 

"Comparatively  few  untrained  teachers  appreciate  the  im- 
portance of  reviews,"  says  See.  "With  some  this  is  simply 
the  result  of  neglect  or  thoughtlessness;  with  others,  the 
positive  feeling  that  time  spent  on  reviews  is  time  largely 
lost."  A  teacher's  appreciation  of  the  impoi'tance  of  the 
Eevicw  will  be  measured  to  some  extent  by  the  time  he  spends 
upon  it  in  the  class  session.  Gregory  says  that  the  best 
teachers  give  about  one-third  of  each  lesson  hour  to  reviews. 

Examinations. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  test  the  results  of  our  teaching, 
to  make  sure  that  the  knowledge  has  been  actually  acquired. 
Just  as  the  scientist  always  verifies  his  conclusions,  so  the 
teacher  should  never  be  satisfied  until  he  has  tested  the  results 
of  his  teaching.  This  testing  is  useful,  both  for  testing  one's 
own  knowledge  and  methods,  and  for  aiding  the  scholars  in 
clearing  up  their  misunderstandings,  or  lack  of  knowledge. 

These  examinations  can  be  held  either  in  writing,  or  orally. 
Many  schools  hold  them  twice  a  year,  requiring  the  attendance 
of  the  pupils,  and  giving  them  choice  of  ten  out  of  fifteen 
questions  presented,  and  preparing  the  questions  with  the 
hektograph  or  mimeograph.  Sometimes  scholars  arc  kept 
back.  Sometimes  they  are  definitely  promoted,  and  sometimes 
they  are  allowed  to  go  on  with  "conditions"  to  be  made  up  in 
the  subject,  and  passed  during  the  succeeding  year.  Usually 
the  Term  Grade  counts  for  half,  and  the  examination  for 
half,  the  Term  Grade  being  composed  of  Attendance  at  Sun- 
day School  and  Church,  and  Prejiaration  of  the  Lesson  at 
home,  as  well  as  Eeeilation  in  Class.  Seventy  Per-cent.  makes 
a  good  passing  grade.     In  some  cases  where  the  term  grade 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  THE  LESSON  171 

has    reached   sevcnty-fivc    or    eighty    Pcr-eent.,    sehohirs    are 
allowed  to  dispense  with  the  Avritten  examination,  although 
we  rather  welcome  the  written  examination,  because  it  secures 
helpful  review  of  the  term's  work. 
Types  in  Teaching. 

In  secular  education,  Types  play  a  large  factor;  and  the 
general  trend  of  opinion  to-day  is  to  make  a  most  prominent 
use  of  them,  so  far  as  possible  in  every  department.  The  plan 
of  typical  elements,  typical  characters,  typical  bays,  countries, 
rivers,  mountains,  typical  industries,  etc.,  forms  the  ground- 
work of  numberless  lesson-plans.  The  idea  is  a  good  one : 
(a)  because  it  supplies  the  foundation  for  grouping  certain 
characteristics  which  belong  to  classes;  (b)  it  aids  in  gener- 
alizing, forming  concepts,  practically  being  a  model  form  of 
unifying  knowledge.  To  that  extent  it  is  labor-saving, 
memory-relieving.  The  child  does  not  have  to  master  the 
characteristics  of  each  new  object.  He  has  left  only  the  few 
peculiar  and  unique  dissimilarities,  or  differences,  which  dif- 
ferentiate it  from  others  of  the  general  type. 

There  is  abundant  scope,  whatever  be  our  recpiircd  system 
of  lessons,  for  opportunity  to  use  this  little  hint,  and  develop 
our  topics  occasionally  on  the  type  form.  The  children  will 
at  once  appreciate  our  approach  to  Day  School  work  in  this 
particular. 

The  "Point  of  Contact"  in  Teaching. 

This  is  the  title  of  a  delightful  little  book  by  Patterson 
Du  Bois.  In  it  he  sums  up  most  attractively  a  galaxy  of 
fundamental  points  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology,  some  of 
which  will  prove  of  inestimable  assistance  to  most  of  us. 
What  is  first  as  cause,  may  he  last  in  discovery  to  the  child. 
What  is  truly  Tcnown  must  he  hnoiun  hy  experience.  A  child 
I'nows  at  first  only  the  concrete.  In  all  teaching,  proceed 
from  the  Known  to  the  Unlcnown.     Therefore  find  the  Point 


172  TllK  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

of  Contact,  that  is,  the  Point  of  Interest  on  the  CliihVs  Life- 
plane,  and  make  it  the  Point  of  Departure  and  Sympathy  in 
all  teaching.  The  great  fault  in  our  Sunday  School  teaching 
has  been  that  we  have  not  sought  the  child's  penetrable  point. 
Wo  have  approached  him  through  adult  ideas,  upon  an  adult 
plane. 

(1)  What  is  first  as  cause  may  he  last  in  discovery  to  the 
child.  This  means  that  the  small  child,  as  wc  have  said 
before,  is  concrete,  docs  not  reason,  literally  does  not  think; 
it  means  that  he  docs  not  sec  Cause  and  Effect;  he  docs  not 
see  how  tliis  thing  came  about;  nor  does  he  see  why  he  should 
not  do  tliat  thing,  nor  what  it  will  lead  to  in  effect.  In  ibis 
rule  is  summed  up  in  a  nutshell  much  of  the  essenfial  elements 
of  sound  teaching. 

(2)  ^Vhat  is  truly  Iniown  must  he  hnown  hy  experience. 
Du  Bois  tells  the  story  of  an  older  sister  trying  to  answer  the 
question  of  her  little  brother  Robbie — "Tell  bow  sidewalks 
were  made."  To  the  high  school  girl,  the  sidcwall\s  were 
laid  on  the  ground,  so  she  began  to  explain  the  ground  and 
its  history  first.  To  the  child,  the  ground  was  liiddcn  under 
the  sidewalks.  His  first  experience  Avith  earth  was  not  the 
underlying  ground,  but  the  overlying  sidewalks. 

(3)  The  child  at  first  Jcnows  only  the  concrete.  'I'bis 
has  been  alluded  to  frequently  before,  and  needs  only  ilic 
merest  references  here.  Tt  means  that  we  must  deal  with 
things,  with  objects,  })icturcs,  those  ideas  that  will  cause  the 
formation  of  mental  images,  products  of  the  imagination. 
How   Much  Children    Know. 

Professor  Hall,  in  a  s\vce|)ing  investigation  of  Boston 
school  children,  just  after  entering  school  (say  from  six  up), 
found  tliat  twenty  per-cent.  of  tliese  did  not  know  that  wooden 
things  were  made  from  trees;  forty-seven  per-cent.  never  saw 
a  pig ;  and  over  thirteen  per-cent.  did  not  know  their  cheek, 
foi-ehend.  or  throat;  eighty   per-cent.   did  not  know  what  a 


now  TO  riJKI'ARK  THE  LESSON  173 

beehive  was;  over  ninety  per-eont.  did  not  know  their  ribs; 
eighty-one  pcr-cent.,  tlieir  kings;  eiglity  per-ccnt.^  their  lieart, 
and  seventy  })t'r-crnt.  (iieir  wrist;  twenty-one  per-cent.  did 
not  know  the  dill'erence  between  tlieir  riglit  and  lel't  luinds, 
and  thirty-five  per-cent.  had  never  been  in  tlie  country  in 
their  lives.  Most  of  them  thought  many  animals  were  no 
larger  than  their  pictures. 

From  the  above  statistics,  it  seems  not  too  much  to  say 
that  every  teacher,  starting  with  a  new  class,  must  make  sure 
that  his  efforts  along  certain  lines  are  not  utterly  lost,  and 
should  explore  carefully,  portion  by  portion,  his  pupils'  minds, 
determine  precisely  what  is  already  known,  and  realize  that 
the  knowledge  most  common  to  children  of  a  given  locality 
will  be  that  of  their  earliest  surroundings,  and  that  rarer 
knowledge  will  come  later;  that  the  country  child  will  know 
country  and  not  city  things;  and  the  city  child,  city  things 
and  not  country. 

The  Child's  Vocabulary. 

The  average  vocabulary  of  a  child  two  years  old  may  be 
less  than  300  words.  A  child  of  seven  has  2500 ;  and  one 
from  eight  to  ten  knows  from  3000  to  4000  words.  There 
are  few  persons  living  who  have  a  vocabulary  of  more  than 
15,000  or  20,000  words.  Some  African  tribes  have  less  than 
300,  and  by  using  the  term  Vocabulary,  we  mean  knowledge 
of  words. 

Tlie  actual  speaking  vocabulary  is  probably  not  more  than 
one-fourth,  or  one-fifth  of  that  number.  It  is  notorious  that 
I  young  lady,  for  example,  will  survive  with  a  vocabulary  of 
possibly  eight  adjectives,  such  as  "Perfectly  awful,"  "Just  too 
sweet,"  "So  lovely,"  etc.  It  is  probably  true  that,  speaking 
with  precision,  there  is  but  one  exact  word  to  express  the 
sense  of  any  one  thought.  It  is  because  we  are  not  taught 
to  grasp  the  precise  shade  of  meaning,  and  to  be  accurate  in 


174  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

our  conversation,  that  our  vocabulary  is  so  meagre,  instead  of 
rich  and  vivid.  Nouns  form  sixty  per-cent  of  the  average 
vocabulary  of  a  child;  verbs  twenty  per-cent;  adjectives  nine 
per-cent;  adverbs  five  per-cent;  pronouns  two  pcr-ccnt. 

How  to  Graft  the  Unknown  to  the  Known. 

In  technical  language,  this  is  the  Apperception,  already 
referred  to.  It  is  not  always  easy  for  the  teacher,  knowing 
so  little  of  what  the  child's  mind  really  has  experienced,  to 
find  the  point  of  contact  at  once.  One  needs  quick  thought, 
keen  observation,  rapid  adaptability  to  sudden-  unfoldings  of 
contact-points,  in  order  to  adjust  knowledge  to  the  child's 
capacities.  The  story  Du  Bois  gives  from  Miss  Harrison's 
experience  strikes  at  the  right  method.  Practically,  it  is 
putting  yourself,  so  far  as  may  be,  on  the  child's  plane,  and 
endeavoring  to  picture  to  your  own  mind  what  he  knows,  what 
he  likes,  where  his  interest  and  curiosity  will  lie.  We  may 
often  "miss  the  point,  and  even  fall  below  the  child's  level"; 
l)nt  we  shall  soon  find  that  out. 

And  so  all  our  abstract  teaching  at  an  early  age  entirely 
misses  the  point,  and  too  often  far  worse ;  for  it  docs  positive 
mischief.  What  do  hymns  of  heavenly  longing  mean  to  a 
ebild  who  knows  naught  of  death,  and  who  is  brimming  over 
with  life?  Arguments  and  proofs  are  dangerous  to  a  child- 
mind  that  has  not  yet  reached  the  period  of  doubting.  All 
Bible  Stories  for  the  early  years  are  a  point  of  contact,  for 
the  child  is  interested  in  stories,  the  concrete.  It  does  not 
make  one  whit  of  difference  whether  they  come  in  chrono- 
logical order.  Each  set  story  is  a  piece  of  mosaic,  cut  and 
carved,  ready  to  be  lifted  into  the  proper  place  in  the  great 
pattern  of  history.  The  aim  is  to  fit  the  unknown  to  the 
known  without  gaps,  by  easy,  gliding  steps  as  it  were. 

Pains  and  suffering,  agony,  killings,  and  liorrors,  too,  are 
foreign  to  the  child-mind.    He  may  delight  in  tliem,  because 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  THE  LESSON  175 

lie  loves  actions,  such  as  they  are  full  of;  and  we  grant  that 
he  never  appreciates  the  horror  and  enormity  of  them,  but 
neither  does  he  comprehend  them.  Also  details  of  things, 
too  minute  and  multiplied,  are  not  point  of  contact  methods. 
Wholes  are  better,  for  discrimination  and  reflection  have 
not  proceeded  far  enough  to  grasp  details  to  any  profound 
extent.  Put  youself  in  your  pupil's  place.  The  danger  lies 
in  the  material,  rather  than  in  the  words  we  select,  for  we 
are  apt  to  be  cautious  on  this  line.  The  same  lesson  for  all 
these  grades  is  the  fruitful  cause  of  this  error.  Give  subjects 
suited  to  the  age  you  teach. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   STUDY   AND   DISCUSSION. 

1.  In  preparing  the  Lesson,  what  first  step  is  advised,  and   why? 

Explain. 

2.  State  the  other  steps  to  follow,  and  explain. 

3.  What  outline  should  a  proper  text-book  have? 

4.  Show  how  this  outline  follows  the  standard  Herbartian   Steps. 

5.  Why  is  the  Lesson  Title  important? 

6.  What  is  the  best  method  for  the  Introduction? 

7.  Discuss  Induction  versus  Deduction. 

8.  Why  are  frequent  Reviews  important? 

9.  What  do  we  mean  by  Correlation? 

10.  How  do  Types  aid  in  teaching? 

11.  What  rules  are  given  under  the  "Point  of  Contact"? 

12.  How  much  do  small  children  know  at  each  age,  roughly  speaking? 

13.  What  is  Apperception,  and  what  does  it  mean  educationally? 


SYLLA]}US  OF  CHAPTER  XI. 

HOW  TO   INTEREST  SCHOLARS   AND  SECURE   ATTENTION 

SUGGESTED  READING— 

The  Art  of  Securing  Attention,  Fitch. 
How  TO  Hold  Attention,  Hughes. 
How  to  Interest,  Mutch. 

SUMMARY. 

Attention  is  (a)  Involuntary;  (b)  Voluntary.  Former  is  spon- 
taneous or  passive.  Latter  is  with  Effort.  Attention  will  not 
attach  itself  to  uninteresting  Ideas.  Tlierefore  constant  change 
necessary. 

Herbartian  Doctrine  of  Interest  is  the  basis  of  Modern  Education. 
It  means  tliat  tlie  Object  or  Idea,  in  wliich  we  are  interested,  is 
actually,  and  vitally  necessary  to  our  Self-expression. 

Same  thing  may  elicit  Immediate  or  Derived  Interest  according  to 
conditions.  Latter  ensues  when  the  End  is  somewhat  remote. 
Voluntary  Attention  only  can  be  given  to  it. 

Interest  is  thus  in  the  pcrsoyi,  not  in  the  thing. 

How  to  Hold  Attention.  Not  by  Clamor  or  Appeals.  Nor  by  Unin- 
teresting tilings.     Therefore  present  new  aspects  and  ideas. 

The  Will  must  be  used  in  Voluntary  Attention,  and  Direct  Effort 
made  to  fix  the  mind  in  thinking. 

After  Early  Childhood,  one  can  acquire  an  Interest  at  times. 

Attention  responds  best  along  lines  of  personal  inclination. 

There  is  a  Native  Variation  in  Attention-power. 

Phj'sical  Means  to  Aid  Attention.  Attitude — sit  up.  Keep  still. 
Look  at  Teacher,  facing  him.  Look  intently  at  the  work  to  be 
done.  Use  Proper  Seating  and  Arrangejnent  of  Forms.  Place 
Troublesome  Pupils  near  the  Teacher,  and  away  from  others. 

Kill  Interests,  not  wanted,  by  satisfying  them. 

False  Views  of  Interest.  Interesting  not  always  Easy  nor  Pleasure- 
able.     May  also  have  an  Interest,  but  in  the  wrong  thing. 

Any  thing,  not  naturally  interesting,  may  become  interesting,  by 
beinfj  linked  Avith  an  interesting  thing. 


now  TO  INTEREST  SCHOLARS  177 

Personal  Ownership  also  lends  power  to  Interest. 
Fatigue. 

Normal — (1)    Weakening   of   Attention;     (2)    Judgment   unreli- 
able;  (3)  Loss  of  Self-control;    (4)  Lessened  Work-rate. 
Abnormal — (1)    Depressed  Mouth-angles;    (2)    Horizontal   Fore- 
head Furrows;    (3)    Eye-wandering;    (4)    Dark  Color  under 
the  Eyes. 


CHAPTEE  XI. 

HOW  TO   INTEREST  SCHOLARS  AND  SECURE  ATTENTION 

Attention  and    Interest. 

We  have  already  stated  the  great  law  of  Attention — that 
Attention  cannot  attach  itself  to  uninteresting  ideas,  and  we 
have  already  defined  the  two  kinds  of  Attention:  (1)  Invol- 
untary, passive  or  spontaneous;  and  (2.)  Voluntary,  or  Atten- 
tion with  an  effort.  The  former  is  that  given  immediately 
to  interesting  things,  and  the  latter  to  things  where  the  inter- 
est is  somewhat  remote. 

At  the  foundation  of  any  proper  conception  of  the  new 
Education  lies  the  appreciation  of  the  true  doctrine  of  Inter- 
est. It  may  be  said  that  Herbart  and  Professor  Dewey  are 
responsible  for  the  clear  analysis  of  Interest,  and  its  laws, 
which  first  revolutionized  modern  teaching.  When  once  the 
teacher  grasps  the  doctrine  of  Interest,  as  set  forth  by  Her- 
bartian  Societies,  and  as  exploited  by  Professor  Dewey  in  the 
Herbart  Year  Book,  his  attitude  toward  tlic  child,  and  his 
method  of  teaching,  will  be  completely  changed. 

What  Interest  Is. 

The  gist  of  Professor  Dewey's  argument  is  that  "genuine 
interest  is  the  identification,  through  action,  of  the  self  with 
some  object  or  idea,  because  of  the  necessity  of  that  object 
or  idea  for  the  maintenance  of  self-expression.  .  .  .  When  we 
recognize  that  there  are  certain  powers  within  the  child 
urgent  for  development,  needing  to  be  acted  upon,  in  order 


HOW  TO  INTEREST  SCHOLARS  179 

to  secure  their  own  efficiency  and  discipline^  we  have  a  firm 
basis  upon  which  to  build." 

Thus  a  time-table  can  be  of  utmost  interest^  if  it  concerns 
our  own  journey,  or  that  of  some  friend.  Hard  work  ceases 
to  be  a  drudgery  when  connected  with  some  definite  and 
appreciated  result.  This,  therefore,  is  what  we  mean  when  we 
say,  "Create  Interest."  It  does  not  mean  a  false  Interest  set 
up  by  colored  chalk-lines,  or  bright  figures,  or  pictures  with 
no  meaning  in  themselves.  It  does  not  purpose  jingly  tunes, 
or  nonsensical  motions  for  the  Attention,  held  momentarily 
and  aunlessly.  It  means  all  the  real,  intrinsic  connection  of 
the  subject  with  the  child's  own  vital  past  experience,  with 
his  own  impulses  to  thought  and  action,  giving  self-exi^ression 
to  his  own  native  or  acquired  wants  and  tendencies,  and  thus 
an  interest  in  the  subject  in  hand.  Any  other  means,  used 
to  hold  Attention,  maintain  Order,  secure  study,  and  gain 
Answers  to  Questions,  are  false,  and  worse  than  useless,  being 
positively  injurious,  and  creative  of  the  permanent  habit  of 
Divided  Attention,  or  Mind-wandering. 

The  same  thing  may  elicit  either  Immediate  or  Derived 
Interest,  according  to  circumstances.  Thus,  riding  a  bicycle 
would  be  Immediate  Interest  on  a  bright,  cool  day,  Avhen 
running  along  a  good  country  road,  leisurely  riding  for  pleas- 
ure, in  utmost  enjoyment  of  every  present  moment.  But 
riding  the  same  wheel,  on  a  hot,  sultry  day,  on  a  dusty,  poor 
road,  up  a  steep  hill,  seeking  to  reach  a  certain  destination 
on  time,  would  represent  Derived  Interest,  not  Immediate  or 
Spontaneous.  That  is.  Derived  Interest  comes  when  the  end 
is  somewhat  remote.  Much  of  life  is  of  this  type.  Tlie  busi- 
ness man  plods  through  a  lal^orious  or  unpleasant  task,  day 
after  day,  not  for  its  intrinsic  pleasure,  not  for  the  salary  at 
the  Aveek's  end,  not  even  for  the  things  that  salary  can  buy  at 
home ;  l)\it,  ultimately,  for  the  love  he  bears  his  wife  and 
family — Derived    Interest,    because   tlic   end    is   remote,   and 


180  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

effort  bridges  over  the  chasm  between.  Someone  h.as  said  that 
all  life  is  ruled  by  two  basal  motives.  Love  and  Duty;  that 
the  latter  is  really  the  former,  where  an  ideal  devotion  to  a 
principle  demands  a  love  that  stands  paramount  to  the  love 
attaching  to  a  person  or  a  thing. 

Thus  the  Interest  is  not  in  the  thing,  but  in  the  person. 
You  can  never  "make  things  interesting."  They  must  be  of 
a  nature  (and  so  well  presented)  as  to  attract  the  internal, 
natural  interest  of  the  individual  approached.  He  already 
possesses  the  Interest ;  you  merely  give  him  the  material.  He 
already  has  the  hunger;  you  give  him  the  proper  food.  A 
full  table  does  not  create  hunger,  it  satisfies  it,  already  there, 
though  perhaps  dormant.  Everyone,  always  and  at  all  times, 
has  some  Interest,  unless  he  be  unconscious  or  dead.  He  is 
bound  to  manifest  that  interest  in  something,  if  the  right 
thing  can  be  found  and  given  to  him.  If  he  be  lethargic, 
the  fault  is  not  in  him,  but  in  the  material  or  its  presentation, 
and  so  ultimately  in  the  teacher. 

How  to  Hold  Attention. 

We  have  just  pointed  out  in  the  previous  chapter  how 
Voluntary  Attention  cannot  be  continuously  sustained,  that 
it  comes  in  beats,  that  we  are  able  to  set  the  mind's  eye  upon 
a  thought  in  the  focus  for  an  instant  only,  when  we  find  it 
wandering  again,  and  have  to  recall  it  by  direct  effort  of  the 
will.  No  amount  of  demand,  though  it  may  elicit  outward 
appearance  of  Attention,  will  gain  the  real,  inward  Attention, 
which  will  result  in  Memory,  without  an  inherent  power  to 
interest  the  pupils. 

"Negatively,  then.  Attention  is  not  to  be  secured  by 
clamor  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,"  says  See.  "It  may  not 
be  claimed  by  any  appeals.  The  teacher,  who  in  loud  tones 
calls  for  attention,  is  not  so  apt  to  secure  it  as  the  one  who 
lowers  liis  voice,  or  ceases  for  the  moment  altogether.     The 


HOW  TO  INTKPvKST  SCHOLARS  ISl 

pause  in  the  vibniUoiis  of  tlie  inacliincry  aboard  sliip  causes 
the  passengers  to  awake,  whereas  an  inci'ease  in  the  vibrations 
might  only  lull  to  a  sounder  sleep.  'Xothing,'  says  Gregory, 
'can  be  more  unphilosophical  than  the  attempt  to  cojnpel  the 
wearied  attention  to  a  new  eifort  by  mere  authority.  As  well 
compel  embers  to  rekindle. into  a  blaze  by  blowing.'" 

Attention  will  not  attach  itself  to  uninteresting  things. 
Therefore,  the  subject  must  be  made  to  change  its  aspect,  shoAv 
new  sides,  and  new  and  interesting  phases.  From  an  un- 
changing subject,  the  mind,  even  of  an  adult,  must  wander. 
Either  the  stimulus  must  vary,  or  some  new  attribute  must  be 
discovered  in  the  subject.  The  nervous  system  soon  tires 
under  the  strain  of  continuous  attention  to  the  same  thing. 

The  Will  the  Basis  of  Voluntary  Attention. 

While  the  Attention  of  children  in  Early  Childhood  is 
chiefly  that  of  the  spontaneous.  Involuntary,  passive  sort, 
beyond  that  period  Attention  is  generally  Voluntary  and 
determined.  "Will,  Action,  Attention,  Interest  are  closely  re- 
lated and  connected  together.  Interest  is  the  guiding  star 
of  the  group. 

In  this  last  analysis,  "Will  is  an  effort  of  the  Attention, 
and  Attention  with  an  effort  means  Will.  We  have  shown 
the  converse  of  this  before  by  stating  that  there  is  no  Willing 
without  Attention.  After  Early  Childhood  the  individual  is 
capable  of  acquiring,  to  some  degree  at  least,  an  Interest. 
He  is  able  to  attend  to  a  subject,  and  concentrate  his  Atten- 
tion and  actually  become  interested  in  it.  It  is  true  that 
children,  too,  are  apt  to  become  interested  in  that  to  which 
they  attend. 

Attention  responds  most  easily  along  the  lines  of  personal 
inclination.  The  child  will  attend  to  those  things  that  he 
likes  best.  The  Sensory  child  will  give  attention  most  readily 
to  things  of  practical  interest;  he  will  notice  their  general 


182  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

aspects,  but  not  details.  He  is  able  to  conceutratc  his  atten- 
tion. The  Motor-minded  child  is  troubled  through  a  vacillat- 
ing attention. 

There     is,     however,    you    will     recall,    a     Native    Variation     of 
Attention. 

James  explains  it  thus :  "There  is  unquestionably  a  great 
native  variety  among  individuals  in  the  type  of  their  Atten- 
tion. Some  of  us  are  naturally  scatter-brained,  and  others 
follow  easily  a  train  of  connected  thoughts,  without  temptation 
to  swerve  aside  to  other  subjects.  This  seems  to  depend  on  a 
difference  between  individuals  in  the  type  of  their  field  of 
consciousness.  In  some  persons  this  is  highly  focalized  and 
concentrated,  and  the  focal  ideas  predominate  in  determining 
association. 

"In  others,  we  must  suppose  the  margin  to  be  brighter, 
and  to  be  filled  with  something  like  meteoric  showers  of 
images,  which  strike  it  at  random,  displacing  the  focal  ideas, 
and  carrying  association  in  their  own  direction.  Persons  of 
the  latter  type  find  their  Attention  wandering  every  minute, 
and  must  bring  it  back  by  a  voluntary  will.  The  others  sink 
into  a  subject  of  meditation  deeply,  and,  when  interrupted, 
are  'lost'  for  a  moment  before  they  come  back  to  the  outer 
world." 
Physical  Means  in  Assisting  the  Will  in  Voluntary  Attention. 

One  means  to  secure  attention  is  to  demand  ihe  proper 
attitude.  Do  not  let  the  scholars  slide  down  ou  llio  benches, 
or  wriggle,  or  loll.  Make  them  sit  up  straight,  witli  llie  back 
at  right  angles,  and  look  at  the  teacher.  Opening  a  book  and 
looking  at  the  words  will  frequently  bring  an  inteivst  wIioih^ 
abstract  thinking  would  not.  It  is  also  imporiant  lliat  llic 
teacher  and  the  scholars  always  see  each  oilier.  'J'o  see  both 
ends  of  the  fonn,  it  is  necessary  that  the  teaclier  shoiiUl  sit 
at  a  little  distance  from  his  pupils.  The  exact  spot  for  his 
chair  would  be  the  apex  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  whose  base 


HUW"  TO  INTEREST  SCHOLARS  18.3 

is  the  front  form.  Perhaps  there  is  not  enough  room  to 
allow  this,  in  which  case  the  teacher  will  find  two  difficulties : 
one,  that  the  head  must  be  constantly  moving  to  see  the  ends 
of  the  front  form,  and,  second,  that  she  must  speak  louder 
than  is  convenient  for  the  first  form,  in  order  to  reach  the 
seats  behind. 

In  the  Sunday  School,  unfortunately,  where  separate 
rooms  are  only  beginning  to  be  used,  the  matter  must  be 
compensated  by  sitting  nearer  the  class,  and  making  up  for 
this  disadvantage  by  distinct  vigilance.  A  clear  distinction 
must  be  made  between  loudness  and  clearness  of  the  voice. 
One  may  make  one's  self  distinctly  heard  without  speaking 
in  anything  like  a  loud  tone. 

Troublesome  Pupils. 

The  bad  boys  and  the  restless  girls  (Motor  Type)  should 
be  placed  to  the  teacher's  right  and  left,  that  a  reproving 
hand  may  call  them  to  order.  Incidentally,  each  one  is  away 
from  another  troublesome  pupil,  by  being  next  to  the  teacher. 
The  best  place  for  a  reserved,  sly,  tricky  pupil,  who  is  of  the 
sensory  type,  is  in  the  middle  seat  in  front  of  the  teacher, 
who  can  observe  his  every  movement.  There  is  nothing  that 
paralyzes  the  movements  of  the  mischievous  child  of  this 
type  as  the  unsympathetic  eye  of  the  teacher.  The  third 
kind  of  pupil,  the  studious,  sensory  type,  should  also  be  in 
front,  in  order  that  the  teacher's  eye,  with  a  kind  smile  of 
sympathy,  may  draw  out  the  response  in  ihe  recitation. 

Killing  Interest. 

Professor  Adams  remarks:  ''To  arouse  and  sustain  In- 
terest is  of  such  vital  moment  in  teaching,  that  scarcely  any 
attention  has  been  given  by  writers  to  the  almost  equally 
important  subject  oC  satisfying,  or  allaying,  Interest.  It  is 
perhaps  impossible  to  have  too  much  Interest  in  a  lesson, 
but   it   is    quite   common    to   have   that   Interest   badly   dis- 


IS-t  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

ti'ibuicd.  In  the  course  of  teaching  there  is  frequently 
struggle  of  Interests,  and  if  the  teacher  desires  to  guide  the 
pupil  in  one  direction,  he  must  study  the  clash  of  Interests 
in  order  the  more  effectively  to  favor  the  one  that  he  desires 
to  prevail.  He  must  learn  the  art  of  killing  Interest,  as 
well  as  the  art  of  rousing  Interest. 

''Xow  the  best  way  of  killing  Interest  is  not  by  opposing 
it,  but  by  gratifying  it.  So  soon  as  an  Interest  has  been 
satisfied,  it  dies  a  natural  death.  In  all  cases  he  must  try 
to  avoid  rousing  any  Interest  that  is  likely  to  be  more  power- 
ful than  the  main  line  of  Interest  that  runs  through  the 
lesson.  In  spite  of  all  his  endeavors,  however,  the  teacher 
will  often  find  that  he  has  called  up  powerful  Interests  that 
compete  with  the  Interest  he  has  mainly  in  view;  and,  in 
any  case,  even  the  subsidiary  Interests  he  arouses  must  be 
dealt  with  as  they  arise,  or  they  will  form  a  powerfully  dis- 
tracting force.  Side  issues  must  be  treated  in  such  a  way  as 
to  satisfy  all  the  interest  they  excite,  while  the  main  subject 
of  the  lesson  is  managed  so  as  to  maintain  the  Interest  to 
the  end." 

False  Views  of  Interest. 

One  may  confuse  the  interesting  with  the  easy,  and  argue 
that  Interest  means  making  things  too  easy.  This  is  untrue, 
because  many  difficult  things  may  be  quite  interesting,  and 
the  easiest  things  very  dull.  Nor  need  the  interesting  be 
necessarily  pleasurable.  In  fact,  many  acts  that  are  inter- 
esting are  positively  painful;  as,  for  example,  putting  up 
a  heavy  dumb-bell,  or  a  tug  of  war. 

Then  some  teachers  are  at  fanlt,  either  in  failing  to 
arouse  any  mental  zest  in  a  class,  or  in  arousing  Interest 
in  the  wrong  thing.  The  teacher  shows  the  class  pictures. 
They  are  thoroughly  interested,  but  they  have  no  Interest 
wlialever  in  the  pictures,  or  the  fact  that  the  pictures  illus- 


now  TO  INTEREST  SCHOLARS  185 

irtilc.  'J'oo  oL'tcii  pifturcrf,  or  the  story,  or  the  spoc-iiin'ii  may 
remove  as  much  interest  by  distraetiiig  tlie  pu})!!,  as  it  could 
ever  add  by  its  concreteness. 

Professor  James  has  shown  us,  however,  that  "Any  ob- 
ject, not  interesting  in  itself,  may  become  interesting  tlmnigh 
becoming  associated  with  an  object  in  which  an  interest 
already  exists.  The  two  associated  oljjects  grow,  as  it  were, 
together.  Again,  the  most  natively  interesting  object  to 
anyone  is  his  own  personal  self,  and  its  fortunes.  Lend  tlie 
child  his  books,  pencils,  etc.,  then  give  them  to  him,  and  see 
the  new  light  with  which  they  at  once  shine  in  his  eyes. 
Thus,  in  teaching,  begin  with  subjects  in  the  line  of  tlie 
child's  own  personal,  native  interests;  and  then,  step  by 
step,  connect  your  new  teaching  and  new  objects  with  these 
old  ones."  This  is  what  is  involved  in  the  old  Herbartian 
doctrine  of  "Preparation,"  often  so  difficult  of  comprehension. 

Fatigue. 

It  is  important  that  even  the  Sunday  School  Teachers 
learn  to  recognize  the  manifest  signs  of  fatigue  in  the  class, 
and  not  spoil  the  good  effect  of  a  lesson  by  "overdoing  it." 
There  are  two  recognized  kinds  of  fatigue  (a)  normal,  and 
(&)  abnormal,  (a)  Normal  Fatigue  is  the  proper  result 
of  all  work,  mental  or  physical.  It  is  the  hending  of  the 
bow-strings,  which  spring  back  again  on  release.  Eest,  sleep, 
and  food,  correct  normal  fatigue,  (h)  Abnormal  Faligiie 
is  snapping  and  cracking  the  bow,  pushing  the  expenditure 
of  energy  beyond  recovery.  Then  a  diseased  condition  usu- 
ally ensues. 

Signs  of  Fatigue. 

(a)  Normal. —  (1)  A  definite  weakening  of  Attention. 
After  half  an  hour,  few  adults  can  pay  attention  well.  (2) 
An  increasing  unreadiness  and  inaccuracy  of  judgment. 
It  is  unwise  to  endeavor  to  solve  difficult  problems  at  night 


18G  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

timC;,  or  to  worry  over  an  unpleasantness  in  the  evening. 
The  best  plan  is^  steadfastly  to  refuse  to  consider  such  tilings 
when  wear}^,  to  determine  to  rest  and  sleep.  In  the  morn- 
ing, the  clouds  will  have  passed  away,  and  not  only  will 
your  judgment  be  clearer,  but  numy  of  the  shadows  which 
Avere  caused  merely  by  fatigue  A\'ill  have  disappeared.  (3) 
Loss  of  Self  Control,  Temper,  etc.  When  the  husband  comes 
home  tired  at  night,  cross  and  irritable,  the  wise  wife  says 
nothing,  but  "feeds  the  brute,"  and  lets  him  rest.  Soon  the 
irritation  has  passed  away,  and  many  a  family  Jar  is  avoided 
in  this  common  sense  manner.  (4)  Lessened  Work-rate. 
Not  only  is  it  difficult  to  do  work  wlicn  fatigued,  but  it 
literally  docs  not  pay;  for  less  work  is  accomplished  than 
\\ould  be  if  proper  rest  and  recuperation  were  taken.  Note, 
tliat  the  concentrated  attention  of  Adults  can  be  held  for 
forty-five  minutes  only,  with  useful  results;  that  of  children 
of  Adolescent  age,  not  over  thirty  minutes;  small  children 
of  the  Primary  age  not  over  fifteen  minutes. 

(h)  Abnormal. —  (1)  Depression  of  the  Mouth  Angles. 
(2)  Presence  of  Horizontal  Forehead  Furrows:  These  hori- 
zontal forehead  furrows  are  a  chafacteristic  expression  of 
the  weak  minded  and  the  insane,  showing  the  result  of 
abnormal  fatigue  in  their  lives.  (3)  Eye-wandering  and 
positive  inability  to  preserve  fixation  of  the  eyes.  Note,  this 
does  not  mean  ordinary  restlessness.  One  of  the  tests  of 
insanity  is  dancing  eyes  where  the  pupils  cannot  be  held 
and  concentrated.  It  may  also  occur  with  ordinary  abnormal 
fatigue.  (4)  Dull,  dark  color  under  the  eyes.  These  signs 
are  of  value  only  because  a  Sunday  School  Teacher  may 
liave  children  in  the  class  abnormally  fatigued  during  the 
week,  from  either  (1)  overwork,  (2)  unwholesome  confine- 
ment in  unsanitary  homes,  (3)  injurious  shocks,  or  bad 
treatment. 

No  one  should  draw  a  positive  conclusion  from  only  one 


HOW  TO  INTEREST  SCHOLARS  187 

of  these  signs,  as  for  example,  a  "black  eye."  Taken  all 
together,  however,  they  form  a  clinical  picture  of  which 
there  can  be  no  doubt.  Just  as  we  have  a  typical  face  that 
is  pathonomic  of  consumption,  so  we  have  one  that  definitely 
proclaims  Abnormal  Fatigue. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  are  the  two  kinds  of  Attention?    Explain  each  kind. 

2.  What  is  the  great  law  of  Voluntary  Attention? 

3.  What  is  the  Herbartian  Doctrine  of  Interest,  and  how  does  it 

affect  the  problem  of  Attention? 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  Immediate  and  Derived  Interest? 

5.  What  kind  of  Attention  is  necessary  for  the  latter? 

6.  How  does  the  New  Doctrine  of  Interest  differ  from  the  older  one? 

7.  How  can  we  hold  Attention? 

8.  What  is  said  of  the  Will  in  Voluntary  Attention? 

9.  How  does  the  Interest  of  the  Adult  differ  from  that  of  a  Child? 

10.  How  does  Personal  Inclination  affect  Attention? 

11.  What  is  said  of  a  Native  Variation  in  Attention  power? 

12.  What  are  some  of  the  Physical  IMeans  to  aid  Attention? 

13.  Why  do  we  sometimes  have  to  kill  Interest,  and  how  is  it  done? 

14.  What  are  some  of  the  False  views  of  Interest? 

15.  How  can  a  thing,  not  naturally  interesting,  be  made  so? 

16.  How  does  Personal  Ownership  increase  Interest? 

17.  What  are  the  kinds  of  Fatigue,  and  what  are  the  signs  of  each? 


SYLLABUS  OF  CHAPTER  XII. 

HOW    TO    KEEP    ORDER,    AND    CONDUCT    THE 
RECITATION    PROPERLY 

SUGGESTED  HEADING : 

How  TO  Keep  Oroeh,  HikjIks. 
A  Primer  on  Teaching,  Adcniis. 

SUMMARY. 

Order  is  "Conscious  Recognition  of  Law  and  Cooperative  Submission 
to  Constituted  Authority."  It  is  "work  systematized,"  thus 
positive,  not  negative. 

Order  is  essential  to  the  highest  development  of  Life.  Thus  Order 
pertains  to  every  phase  of  School  Regime.  "Rules  of  Order"  are 
seen  in  every  form  of  Business,  every  Organization,  etc.  Lack 
of  Order,  interfering  with  others'  Rights,  both  disturbs  Society 
and  Oneself. 

Disorderly  Schools  are  due  to  (1)  Weak  Teachers.  (2)  Poor  Stan- 
dards of  Work  i-equired.  (3)  Ai-bitrary  Rules,  with  no  real 
Principles  behind  them. 

Secondary  Ends  or  Motives  as  Incentives  to  Order,  i.e.,  Prizes,  Praise, 
Rewards,  Punishments,  etc.,  lower  Ambition,  Self-restraint,  and 
Zeal  for  Work. 

Securing  and  maintaining  Order  require  dillVrcnl    measuics. 

Securing  Order.  (1)  Begin  on  Time.  (2)  Nip  Disorder  in  tiie  bud. 
(3)  Be  Even-handed.  (4)  Be  Orderly  yourself.  (5)  Be  Cheerful 
and  Good-humored.  (6)  Appeal  to  the  Best  Motives  in  Pupils. 
Take  it  for  granted  that  they  will  Recite,  Study,  J5ehave,  etc. 
(7)  Take  Each  Pupil  on  his  own  Best  Approachal)le  Basis. 

Agencies  for  Keeping  Order.  I.  Coercive:  (1)  Punishments;  (2) 
Will  Power;  (3)  Command;  be  sure  to  gain  complete  and  orderly 
control  of  Class  the  first  day  of  conducting  tiie  Recitation,  and 
never  let  the  scholars  obtain  the  upper  hand.  Avoid  always 
Personal  Vengeance  and  Retributive  Punishments.  IT.  Kjcccu- 
tive:     (1)    Give   each    Child    sometliing   to   do;     (2)    Posture   at 


now  TO  KEEP  ORDER  189 

Work;  (3)  Facing  Tcuclier;  (4)  Conceit  Work  in  Ixcciting. 
III.  Incentive:  Such  Agencies  work  from  within.  Are  the 
highest  and  best  type  to  use.  End  of  all  Education  is  to  lender 
one  Self-controlling.  (1)  Natural  Interest  in  the  Subject;  (2) 
Motives  or  Instincts,  good  or  bad,  as  may  be. 

Restlessness  is  the  Cause  of  much  Disorder.  Restlessness  is  Energy 
running  to  Waste.  A  Restless  Class  is  more  than  Ready  to 
Respond  and  Recite.  Want  to  Do.  Give  Opportunity  for  Self- 
expression,  Manual  Work,  Recitation,  and  Questioning. 

In   Selecting  Motives   as   Basis  for  Order,   ask  whether   they  will — 

(1)  Develop  Spontaneity  of  Character;  (2)  Make  Pupils  Self- 
reliant,  yet  Dependent  on  C4od;  (3)  Make  them  Selfish  or  Widen 
Human  Sympathies. 

Some  form  of  Manual  Work  the  Best  to  Express  Mental  States. 
Two    Classes    of    Disorderly    Pupils — (1)     Rebels;     (2)     Xon-rebels. 

Latter  the  most  dilTicult  to  reach. 
Penalties:    Ought  only  to  follow  a  Knoua  Choice  of  Action.     Should 

be  '"Natural"'  Punishment,  the  Direct  Consequence  of  the  Deed. 
Disorderly  Teachers.      ( 1 )   Consciously  ;    ( 2 )   Unconsciouslj'.      ( 1 )   In- 

difi'erent;    (2)   Weak;    (3)   Haphazard;    (4)   Ignorant;    (5)   Using 

Wrong  Methods. 
Order  in  the  Recitation.      ( 1 )    Secure  Order  at  Entrance  to   Class ; 

(2)  Begin  some  Topic  at  once;  (3)  Get  '"Point-of-Contact"; 
(4)  Proceed  from  the  Known  to  the  Unknown;  (5)  Present  New 
Lesson  Material,  usually  by  Development  or  Question  Method ; 
(6)   Review  often. 

Class  Room  Methods  of  Recitation.  (1)  Lecture  Method ;  (2)  Semi- 
nar Method;  (3)  Recitation  or  Topic  Method;  (4)  Question  or 
Conversational  jMethod. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

HOW  TO  KEEP  ORDER,  AND  CONDUCT  THE 
RECITATION  PROPERLY 

What  is  Order? 

"Order  is  Heaven's  first  law,"  and  it  is  certainly  also 
the  first  law  of  the  Class.  Without  Order,  no  good  teaching 
can  he  secured.  Many  of  the  suggestions  given  in  other 
chapters,  such  as  size  of  class,  readiness  and  personality  of 
the  teacher,  method  of.  teaching,  illustrating,  questioning, 
etc.,  affect  Order.  James  II.  Hughes,  Inspector  of  the 
Toronto  Schools,  has  wiitten  a  helpful  brochure  upon  this 
subject.  He  defines  good  Order  as  "the  conscious  recognition 
of  law,  and  a  co-operative  submission  to  constituted  author- 
ity." It  places  no  restraint  on  those  who  are  well  disposed. 
Law  is  perfect  liberty  to  those  who  do  right.  Good  order 
does  not  mean  merely  freedom  from  disorder.  It  is  positive, 
not  negative.  "Order  is  work  systematized."  Our  evil  ten- 
dencies and  our  Avcaknesses  serve  to  lead  us  away  from  Order 
and  Duty. 

'I'herefore,  Order  is  essenlial,  not  merely  that  tlie  recita- 
iion  may  be  conducted,  not  merely  that  the  teacher  may  he 
safe  from  confusion  and  noise;  but  that  the  pupils  may 
receive  the  benefit  of  the  development  of  orderly  liahits  of 
life.  The  teacher  who  fails  to  keep  order  fails,  therefore, 
ill  one  of  the  very  highest  duties.  The  great  Aim  of  all 
Educative  Tendencies  is  to  bring  the  individual  into  "con- 


HOW  TO  KEEP  ORDER  191 

scions^  intelligent  and  co-operative  obedience  to  the  Divine 
Law-giver." 

The  Sunday  School  class  is  one  of  the  very  agencies  of 
most  use  in  the  training  and  education  of  this  habit  of  order. 
Thus,  it  is  not  only  for  the  sake  of  the  teacher,  nor  yet  for 
the  sake  of  the  individual  lesson  to  be  taught,  that  order 
must  be  maintained.  An  orderly  school  is  one  in  which  there 
is  a  special  place  for  everything,  and  in  which  everything  is 
in  its  place.  The  books  of  the  pupils  are  arranged  in  proper 
order.  The  scholars  are  properly  seated.  The  Morale  of  the 
school  is  high.  The  proper  discipline  and  quiet,  necessary 
to  good  work,  are  observed.  It  is  the  place  where  everyone 
minds  his  own  business,  and  helps  others  to  mind  theirs. 

Every  place  in  life,  every  institution,  every  kind  of  busi- 
ness, every  organization,  such  as  the  school  or  the  society, 
must  have  rules,  conventions,  sanctions,  and  standards  for 
conduct.  In  fact,  the  very  name  "Eules  of  Order,"  indicates 
the  recognition  of  this  fact.  People  who  are  associated  in 
any  definite  enterprise,  recognize  the  necessity  for  such  con- 
ditions, and  the  children  will  recognize  this  necessity  quite 
as  fully  as  will  the  adult.  If  the  problem  of  discipline  and 
order  be  left  in  their  hands,  with  proper  explanation  of  con- 
sequences ensuing  through  defeating  the  aim  of  the  school, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  problem  of  order  has  largely  disap- 
peared. Those  who  violate  such  rules  interfere  with  the 
success  of  the  organization,  and  thereby  harm  theitisolves. 

"In  schools  that  arc  really  disorderly,  tlie  imiiblc!  is 
usually  to  be  found  in  one  or  more  of  three  coiuiuon  condi- 
tions: the  character  of  the  teacher,  which  may  be  positively 
bad,  merely  weak  and  unimpressive,  or  ultra-sentimental ;  Ihe 
character  of  tlie  work  required,  which  may  be  eitlier  upon  a 
low  plane,  or  so  presented  to  tlie  children  that  they  fail  to  see 
the  good  in  it,  and  to  realize  its  worth ;  or  the  enforcement 


l!ii>  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

o£  coiiventions  resting  u])()n  no  sound  moral  priiieiplo.     The 
last  mentioned  has  already  been  sufficient!}'  considered." 

The  Use  of  Secondary  Ends  as  Motives  to  Order. 

The  use  oi;  interior  or  Secondar}'  Ends  or  means  as 
motives  to  good  conduct  is  never  to  be  commended,  save  in 
immediate  and  present  emergency.  '"The  trouble  with  the 
world/'  says  Professor  Gilbert,  "in  so  far  as  it  is  wrong  is, 
of  course,  that  people  are  pursuing  wrong  ends,  commonly 
minor  or  secondary  ends,  under  the  mistaken  notion  that 
they  are  primary.  People  chase  wealth,  social  position,  and 
political  power  for  themselves,  and  so  enter  upon  an  endless 
pursuit,  and  are  never  happy.  These  objects  pursued  are 
elusive,  because  they  are  not  real ;  they  are  means  to  ends, 
and  are  not  properly  ends  at  all,  or  are  merely  secondary 
ends.  By  secondary  ends  in  school,  I  mean  prizes,  marks, 
and  punishment.  A\^e  do  right  to  wonder  at  the  perversity 
of  humanity  in  thus  following  unworthy  ends,  when  we  see 
that  in  most  schools  secondary  ends  are  held  before  children 
until  their  pursuit  becomes  haljitual.  How  can  we  expect 
children  who  have  been  taught  to  study  for  marks,  or  prizes, 
or  to  avoid  punishment,  instead  of  pursuing  with  a  live  in- 
terest, knowledge  itself,  to  acquire  a  love  for  truth?  How 
can  we  expect  children,  when  tliey  grow  up,  to  ])ursue  social 
service  through  tlie  use  of  available  means,  instead  of  ]mr- 
suiiig  these  means  as  if  they  were  fbe  (Mids  Ihcmselves?" 

The  Difference- Between  Securing  and  Maintaining  Order. 

These  are  two  very  different  operations,  and  must  l)e 
carried  on  in  diverse  ways.  It  is  not  possible  for  a  teacher, 
taking  charge  of  a  class,  to  secure  Order  at  once  by  the  same 
measures  that  will  be  used  a  little  later  to  maintain  it.  The 
teacher  should  have  the  sympathy  of  each  member  in  the 
class,  and  however  much  discipline  may  be  used,  tbis  bond 
of  sympathy  should   ever   exist.      I'ules  should   l)e    U'w  \   l)ut 


HOW  TO  KEEP  ORDER  193 

tliosc  rules  should  he  al)S()lulely  respected  and  oheyed.  Loose- 
ness, laxness,  and  freedom,  are  hoth  had  for  the  pupils,  and 
destructive  of  confidence  in  tlie  teacher.  Firmness  is  admired 
l)v  the  scholars,  while  Aveakness  and  wavering  are  despised. 

Securing  Order. 

Begin  on  'Time.  This  will  depend  to  a  large  extent  upon 
the  conduct  of  the  school,  and  the  business  method  of  the 
superintendent.  As  Dr.  Butler  says:  "The  orderly  officer 
hegins  on  time,  and  ends  on  time,  exactly  on  time,  knowing 
that  nohody  else  will  he  on  time  if  he  is  not.  'But  the 
organist  has  not  arrived,'  or  'the  choirmaster  is  ahsent.'  Well, 
what  of  it?  Shall  we  allow  one  disorderly  man  to  ruin  the 
order  of  fifty  or  three  hundred  pupils?  When  the  tardy 
officer  arrives,  and  finds  the  School  in  session,  he  will  need 
no  other  rebuke.  Begin  on  time.  Not  by  banging  the  bell, 
or  crying  'Silence.'  If  the  School  does  not  immediately  obey 
the  first  tap  of  the  bell,  and  you  have  been  superintendent 
for  two  months,  blame  yourself,  not  the  School.  The  worst 
thing  to  do  is  to  keep  banging  the  bell,  or  to  tell  the  organist 
to  turn  on  the  full  organ.  I  heard  of  an  officer  who  banged 
his  bell  eighteen  times ;  but  his  noise  did  not  produce  silence ; 
it  never  does." 

Nip  Disorder  in  the  Bud.  Secure  Order  as  soon  as  you 
enter  the  class.  Do  not  wait  for  ten  minutes,  or  even  five. 
Drawbridge  urges:  "Be  quite  determined  and  definite  in 
your  own  mind  as  to  what  to  allow,  and  what  to  forbid. 
Make  it  equally  clear  as  to  the  class  exactly  what  they  may, 
and  may  not,  do.  When  any  boy  seems  inclined  to  overstep 
the  bounds  you  have  drawn,  nip  the  tendency  to  insubordina- 
tion in  the  bud,  before  the  culprit  is  conscious  of  his  ten- 
dency, and  before  the  others  have  noticed  anything  amiss, 
l^eace  at  any  price  is  sure  to  end  in  war;  and  to  leave  an 


I'Ji  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

undefined  boundary  between  the  lawful  and  the  unlawful, 
^\ill  have  the  same  effect." 

Be  Even-handed,  ever  the  same  in  expecting  and  securing 
order.  Do  not  be  fickle  and  changeable.  Do  not  reprove  the 
boy  one  day,  and  smile  at  the  same  action  the  next,  or  vice 
versa.  Do  not  rebuke  one  pupil,  and  pass  by  the  same  action 
in  others.  While  the  teacher's  moods  may  vary,  she  should 
never  be  inconsistent,  but  should  maintain  the  same  standard 
of  order  and  discipline  throughout  both  each  session  and 
succeeding  weeks.  Insubordination  on  the  part  of  the  pupil 
implies  poor  government  of  the  teacher. 

Be  Orderhj  yourself.  Force  of  example  counts  for  a  good 
deal.  If  the  teacher  be  "belter  skelter,"  slip-shod,  disorderly 
in  habit  or  dress,  unsystematic  in  method  or  recitation, 
rambling  in  the  manner  in  which  he  speaks  and  questions, 
the  class  will  almost  certainly  develop  the  same  condition. 

"Be  clieerful  and  good-humored,  and  put  the  class  in  a 
good  humor,"  says  Drawbridge.  Frequently  a  joke  has 
averted  a  riot.  Not  a  display  of  force  and  anger,  but  the 
exercise  of  tact  and  sympathy,  is  what  is  needed.  The  man- 
agement of  a  restive  class,  and  the  control  of  a  fresh  horse, 
have  many  points  of  resemblance.  In  each  case  a  gentle 
woman's  hand  can  often  achieve  what  no  display  of  force  and 
violence  would  ever  accomplish.  The  latter  may  drive  in  the 
symptoms  of  unrest  and  disorder,  the  former  alone  can  win 
over  the  spirit  and  the  will,  and  secure  the  desired  disposi- 
tion. Children  prefer  order,  if  they  arc  managed  witli 
patience,  knowledge,  and  tact;  l)ut  if  the  (restive  horse,  or) 
child  once  gets  out  of  hand,  it  is  very  diflficult  to  undo  tlic 
mischief  which  has  resulted  from  one's  weakness. 

Appeal  to  the  hest  motives  of  your  pupils,  and  trust  to 
their  higher  instincts.  Develop  positive,  and  not  negative, 
habits.  Take  it  for  granted  that  Ihcy  will  study.  Be  more 
\\\;\n  sur[»i'iscd  ihat  they  do  not  know.     If  Ihc  teaclicr  expects 


now  TO  KEEP  ORDER  195 

* 
no  liomc  work^  she  will  get  none,     li'  she  apologizes  i'or  re- 
quiring promptness,  study,  punctuality,  Cliureh  Attendance, 
she  Avill  lower  the  ideals  regarding  these  especial  habits  for 
all  the  children. 

A  superintendent  has  been  known  to  literally  beg  tlie 
Sunday  School  to  attend  the  ensuing  Children's  Service,  say- 
ing if  they  only  would  stay,  he  would  make  the  Service  very 
short,  and  then  they  could  "go  out  in  the  delightful  weather." 
Such  a  plan  without  any  doubt  causes  disrespect  to  the 
Church  and  the  School.  Take  the  highest  standard  througli- 
out.  In  everything  appeal  to  the  best,  the  noblest,  the  highest. 
There  is  good  in  everything,  and  high  ideals  can  be  aroused. 

Of  course,  eacli  pupil  requires  its  own  individual  and 
personal  hind  of  management.  It  is  wise  to  appeal  to  the 
heart  of  the  one,  to  the  sense  of  right  of  another,  to  the  love 
of  order  in  a  third,  to  the  religious  feelings  of  a  fourth,  and 
to  the  sense  of  shame  in  a  fifth.  Love,  sympathy,  tact, 
patience,  knowledge,  all  are  necessary. 

Expect  to  he  obeyed. — "They  can  conquer  who  believe 
they  can."  If  you  have  no  confidence  in  yourself,  do  not 
make  a  parade  of  your  weakness  before  the  class. 

The  following  anecdote  will  illustrate  this  most  important 
consideration:  At  a  clerical  meeting,  a  very  aged  clergyman 
told  a  story  of  his  early  childhood.  He  said,  "The  gardener 
once  accused  me,  to  my  mother,  of  having  done  something- 
wrong.  My  mother  looked  me  in  the  face  and  said  to  my 
accuser,  'No,  I  am  sure  Master  John  could  not  have  done 
such  a  thing.' "  He  added,  "But  I  had  done  it,  you  know." 
He  went  on  to  say  that  he  had  never  forgotten  the  lesson  he 
learned  that  day.  All  through  his  life,  he  had  tried  to  follow 
her  wise  method  of  rebuke.  Show  children  that  you  expect 
much  of  them,  and  they  will  not  disappoint  you.  We  all 
live  up  to  tlic  estimate  which  others  have  of  us;  and  those 
who  expect  much  of  others  are  not  disappointed. 


I'M;  TIIK  Kl.E.MENT.S  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Agencies  for  Keeping  Order. 

(a)  Coercive  Agencies.  Such  are  those  that  endeavor  to 
compel  the  will  of  the  child.  All  punishments,  and  the  mere 
dominating  will-power  of  the  teacher,  which  latter  borders  on 
hypnotic  control  or  personal  force,  are  the  lowest  forms  of 
control;  external,  negative,  and  the  least  effective.  The  child 
so  influenced  lacks  spontaneity  and  executive  activity. 
Hughes  says:  "Teachers  should  try  to  realize  the  terribly 
destructive  influence  on  character  exerted  by  frequently  re- 
])eated  violations  of  rules,  even  in  regard  to  matters  that  are 
in  themselves,  or  in  their  direct  results,  comparatively  trifling. 
Our  actions  indicate  what  we  are,  because  our  actions  are  the 
expression  of  the  present  condition  of  our  mental  and  moral 
natures.  Actions  repeated  confimi  habits  of  similar  actions. 
Our  acts  mould  our  characters,  because  they  decide  whether 
Conscience  and  "Will  increase  or  decrease  in  clearness  and 
power.  Ten  years  in  a  school  where  rules  may  l)e  violated, 
where  the  consequences  of  breaking  a  rule  are  estimated  by 
their  effects  on  the  discipline  of  the  school,  instead  of  their 
influence  in  destroying  character,  will  endanger  a  boy's  pros- 
pects in  time  and  eternity.  Disrespect  for  rules  in  the  pupil 
leads  to  disregard  for  law  in  the  citizen,  and  disregard  for 
the  laws  of  men  leads  to  indifference  to  the  laws  of  God. 
AMien  teachers  realize  this  truth,  no  honest  teacher  will  con- 
tinue in  the  profession  without  koci)ing  order.*' 

Rules.  Some  of  these,  such  as  fear,  etc.,  have  been 
already  considered.  According  to  ^Ir.  Grout,  with  the  older 
pupils  the  opening  day  is  most  important.  "Begin  with  the 
assurance  of  success  firmly  fixed  in  your  own  mind,  or  in  as 
near  that  state  of  mind  as  i)ossible.  One  who  enters  the  room 
timidly,  and  deprecatingly,  is  bound  to  have  trouble,  and  that 
soon.  Even  if  you  cannot  help  shaking  in  your  shoes,  use 
all   your   powers  of  self-control   lo  api)ear  uneoiuerned,   and 


now  TO   KKEl'  ORDER  197 

as  familiar  with  lii-st  days  as  willi  your  breakfast.  Every 
eye  is  on  you  for  the  first  few  liours  and  days,  to  see  of  what 
stuif  you  are  made;  and  just  as  soon  as  the  shyness  of  novelty 
has  worn  off,  if  not  sooner,  some  irresponsible  person  will 
do  it  just  to  sec  what  teacher  will  do.  If  you  hesitate  then, 
you  are  lost — for  the  time  at  least.  Do  something  yourself, 
and  do  it  quickly,  so  quickly  as  to  take  away  the  breath  of 
the  insurgent."  Mr.  Grout  continues  to  say  that  ''I  find 
that  boys  more  often  need  sharp,  short  checks  than  girls,  as 
girls  are  naturally  more  tractable  than  boys.  But  a  boy 
rarely  bears  ill-will  toward  a  teacher  for  giving  him  his 
deserts,  while  a  girl's  sense  of  justice  is  much  less  keen,  and 
she  may  bear  a  long  grudge  for  a  punishment  that  was  emi- 
nently fair  and  just.  A  great  deal  of  care  can  be  used  to 
advantage  in  punishing  girls,  as  they  are  very  sensitive  to 
ridicule,  and  a  reprimand  that  will  only  make  a  boy  grin 
sheepishly  will  often  move  a  girl  to  tears  and  a  long  period 
of  sulks. 

"Avoid,  as  you  would  the  Evil  One  himself,  any  appear- 
ance of  personal  vengeance,  or  even  of  purely  retributive 
punishment.  Strive  in  every  way  to  show  that  your  punish- 
ments are  to  prevent  future  offences,  not  to  'pay  up'  for  past 
misdeeds." 

(6)  Executive  Agencies.  These  are  better.  Give  the 
child  something  to  do.  Hold  his  attention  and  interest  by 
providing  some  direct  outlet  to  his  self -activity,  either  physi- 
cal and  manual,  or  mental.  The  will  of  the  scholar  learns 
to  yield  willingly,  almost  unconsciously,  to  the  will  of  tlie 
teacher.  This  habit  gains  by  practice,  just  as  other  habits  do. 
It  is  absolutely  impossible  for  disorder  to  exist  in  a  class 
where  each  pupil  has  some  definite  work.  Proper  attention 
should  be  given,  even  in  a  Sunday  School  Class  held  in  pews 
in  a  church,  to  posture,  so  that  children  sit  upright,  not 
lounging  listlessly,  which  produces  disorder  by  the  very  atti- 


ms  TIIK  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

tudc  assumed.  The  position  of  eacli  scholar  with  regard  to 
the  teacher  is  also  significant.  Each  child  should  face  the 
teacher,  being  seen  and  seeing  at  all  times,  and  not  merely 
when  individually  reciting.  The  eye  of  the  teacher  shonld 
take  in  every  child  with  one  sweep.  Concert  work,  i.e., 
answering,  reciting,  or  reading  together,  all  the  class  at  once, 
is  excellent  for  gaining  order  at  first.  This  is  not  always 
practical,  where  more  than  one  class  occupies  the  room ;  for, 
of  course,  the  only  way  to  uphold  the  Order  of  the  whole 
School  is  that  each  class,  as  well  as  each  child,  should  remem- 
ber Order. 

The  Chapter  on  Manual  AVork,  that  follows  to\\ard  the 
end  of  this  book,  suggests  a  great  many  helpful  points  in  the 
line  of  executive  agencies. 

(c)  Incentive  Agencies.  The  ultimate  aim  of  all  dis- 
cipline is  to  render  a  person  self-controlling.  Even  external 
restraint  should  end  in  independent  powers.  So  long  as  dis- 
cipline has  to  be  exercised  from  without,  no  child  is  in  the 
condition  to  do  his  best  work.  He  acts  under  restraint.  It 
is  only  wdien  control  works  within  outward,  that  the  progress 
of  any  person  can  be  secured.  Therefore  incentive  agencies 
are  the  best.  Interest  is,  of  course,  the  very  highest,  for  it 
is,  as  we  shall  soon  see,  the  spontaneous  outgoing  of  the 
child's  own  impulses  and  desires.  There  is  no  question  of 
Order  or  Disorder,  where  the  right  sort  of  luterest  is  active. 
Hence  in  modern  Day  Schools,  where  the  true  ideas  of  In- 
terest prevail,  the  factor  of  Order  and  its  Incentives  has 
practically  disappeared. 

The  most  effective  Internal  or  Incentive  Agencies,  beyond 
natural  Interest,  are  the  Motives,  good  or  ))ad,  as  they  may 
be.  Wlien  the  child  becomes  a  man,  his  j^rogress  in  life  ami 
his  usefulness  to  society  will  depend  largely  on  the  kind  and 
force  of  his  motives.  Some  men  fail  from  want  of  moiives; 
])ut  the  majority  Avho  fail  do  so  Ijecause  they  do  not  exercise 


HOW  TO  KEEP  ORDER  199 

the  good  ones  they  possess'.  It  is  the  inculcation  and  educa- 
tion and  training,  by  practice,  of  good  and  high  motives  or 
ideals  in  life,  that  is  the  Teacher's  chief  aim  in  all  teaching. 
At  first,  we  suggest  motives ;  but  as  children  grow  older,  they 
originate  motives  themselves. 

Restlessness  the  Cause  of  Much  Disorder. 

One  of  the  jioteut  obstacles  to  securing  Order  is  the  rest- 
lessness of  children,  especially  of  younger  children.  They 
seem  to  find  it  impossible  to  keep  still.  Hands,  legs,  heads, 
eyes,  bodies — all  seem  to  exemplify  that  theory  of  the  ancient 
philosopher  of  perpetual  motion.  Ivestlessness  is  energy  run- 
ning to  waste.  The  fault  is  not  in  the  child,  but  in  the 
teacher.  He  is  not  giving  them  an  opportunity  of  using  their 
energy  in  a  proper  way.  The  scientific  remedy  for  a  disease 
is  not  to  drive  in  the  symptoms,  but  to  cut  out  the  root  of 
the  trouble. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  exercise,  and  motion,  and 
outlet  to  energy,  in  the  Primary  and  Kindergarten.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  restrain  the  healthy  activity  of  children,  especially 
a  mistake  when  this  energy  can  be  used  in  a  liighly  helpful 
way  to  accpiire  knowledge.  Often  a  child's  body  is  restless 
because  no  one  has  found  sufficient  employment  for  his  mind. 
'J'he  child  cannot  be  expected  to  sit  still  for  five  minutes 
while  an  adult  pours  forth  a  torrent  of  words  in  which  he  has 
no  immediate  interest.  The  very  fact  that  such  talking  re- 
quires thought  on  his  ]iart,  almost  of  a  necessity  insures  lack 
of  attention  in  him,  and  consequent  restlessness.  When  being 
properly  questioned  in  school,  or  when  al)Sorbed  with  a  puzzle, 
or  a  game,  children  are  absolutely  still;  jiliysicnlly  they  have 
no  superfluous  energy  to  waste  in  restlessness. 

The  proper  method  is  not  to  shut  the  safety  valve  wlien 
there  is  steam  to  be  let  off,  but  to  provide  channels  that  will 
run  the  machinerv,  and  secure  results.     The  restless  class  is 


•im  THE  ELKMKXTS  OF   CJILIJ)  STUDY 

one  that  is  more  thau  ready  to  respond  to  a  good  teacher. 
It  is  the  very  time  and  the  very  class  in  wliicli  the  teacher 
should  be  most  silent,  and  the  class  most  active  and  voluble. 
All  teaching  requires  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  pupils, 
and  there  can  be  no  proper  teaching  without  that  response. 
Eestlessness  gives  opportunity  for  self-expression,  for  manual 
work,  for  questioning,  for  re-production.  Somcoiw  has  said, 
"The  l)e\il  tempts  a  busy  person,  but  an  idle  person  tempts 
the  devil." 

In  assigning  lessons,  it  is  often  a  good  plan  to  make  cer- 
tain individuals  responsible  for  certain  questions,  or  parts  of 
questions,  apportioned  to  them  in  advance.  This  is  necessary 
where  time  is  limited,  and  where  search  for  illustrations  is 
called  for. 

Some  of  the  questions  are  too  comprehensive  in  character 
to  be  dealt  with  in  the  time  between  two  lessons.  It  is  sug- 
gested that,  at  the  beginning  of  the  course,  such  questions 
be  assigned  to  individuals  as  special  topics,  to  be  reported  on 
at  convenience. 

Written  examinations  at  the  close  of  the  course  will  be 
found  l)oth  instructive  and  interesting.  Such  examinations 
are  sti'ongly  advised.  Questions  for  examination  may  be 
framed  by  ilie  IJeetor  or  Teacher.  In  conducting  examina- 
tions it  is  a  good  ])lan  to  assign  e.x.iniination  nunduM's,  which 
will  serve  to  identify  the  i)a|)ers,  llie  name  of  tlu'  student 
appearing  on  no  |)ai'i  of  (lie  paj)er. 

Emotions  as  Incentives  to  Order. 

in  suggesting  motives  as  Tncenlives  to  Order,  the  teacher 
should  show  great  wisdom  and  eai'c>,  thai  they  nuiy  be  ajipro- 
j)riate  to  the  moi-al  development  of  the  children.  "The  surest 
way,"  says  ITuglies,  "to  destroy  sincerity,  and  develop  hypo- 
crisy and  formalism,  is  to  try  to  make  little  children  assume 
that  they  are  fully  developed  Christians." 


HOW  TO  KEEP  ORDER  201 

All  of  these  motives  have  been  fully  considered  before, 
iluglies  says:  "Fear^  Love  of  Praise,  Ambition,  Emulation. 
Competition,  Pride,  and  the  Desire  to  Please,  have  disadvan- 
tages as  well  as  advantages.  All  the  others  are  decidedly 
beneficial  in  their  influence  on  character. 

"The  same  motives  will  not  equally  influence  all  pupils. 
Motives  should,  therefore,  be  varied.  The  motives  first  named 
should  be  used  as  little  as  possible.  They  may  be  exceedingly 
useful,  however,  in  starting  pupils  to  work  earnestly;  and 
earnest  work  is  the  surest  means  of  lifting  a  human  being, 
of  any  age,  to  a  higher  moral  sphere. 

"'Wlien  fixing  motives  for  the  guidance  of  pupils  through 
life,  the  teacher  is  doing  his  grandest  work.  In  selecting 
motives  he  should  be  guided  by  the  following  considerations : 
(1)  Do  they  develop  spontaneity  of  character?  (2)  Do  they 
make  pupils  self-reliant,  without  weakening  their  conscious- 
ness of  dependence  on  God?  (3)  Do  they  make  men  selfish. 
or  do  they  widen  their  sympathies,  and  increase  their  love 
for  humanity  and  God? 

"The  final  test  of  a  permanent  motive — Does  it  lead  tc 
independence  of  character,  sufficient  to  develop  our  individ- 
uality as  perfectly  as  God  intended  it  to  be  developed,  with- 
out destroying  our  sympathy  for  our  fellow-men,  or  weaken- 
ing our  faith  in  God?  The  best  motives  are  not  merely 
ineffectual,  they  are  injurious,  if  they  are  aroused  without 
producing  their  intended  result  in  action." 

j\f r.  Gilbert  remarks :  "Some  form  of  productive  work, 
whether  with  pen,  jDcncil,  brush,  scissors  and  paper,  or  car- 
penter's tools,  is  the'  individual's  chance.  It  compels  mental 
activity;  it  assures  at  least  some  learning.  It  also  discloses 
to  the  teacher  the  pupil's  mental  state.  The  thing  portrayed, 
or  made,  often  speaks  much  more  plainly  of  the  state  of  mind 
than  the  spoken  words;  though,  of  course,  all  these  forms  of 
i-ear(ion  must  be  stimulated  and  utilized." 


202  TlIK   KI.IOMIONTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

Pupils   Innately   Disorderly, 

Tliei'L'  arc  Iwo  classes  ol'  disordcily  ])upils,  the  rebels  and 
the  non-rebels.  The  rebels  will  usually  give  very  little  trouble, 
partly  because  there  are  so  few  of  them,  and  partly  because 
the  teachers  recognize  that  they  should  be  disciplined  in  the 
school.  Open  defiance  is  easily  met.  But  those  who  arc  not 
openly  rebellious,  and  are  disorderly,  are  very  difficult  to 
handle. 

Some  are  careful  and  definite,  and  some  are  careless  and 
irregular.  It  is  these  that  give  the  most  trouble  of  all,  and 
in  whom  it  is  very  difficult  to  develop  habits  of  order  and 
definiteness. 

Penalties. 

There  is  a  place  for  punishment  in  a  child's  training, 
but  punishment  is  a  Penalty  attached  to  a  choice.  It  should 
never  be  a  brute  force  applied  to  compel  action  against  choice. 
Dr.  Henry  Clay  Trumbull  has  said,  rightly,  "No  child  ought 
ever  to  be  punished  luilcss  he  understood,  when  he  chose  to 
do  the  wrong  in  question,  that  he  was  thereby  incurring  the 
penalty  of  that  punishment." 

Moreover,  as  we  have  said  previousl}',  punishments  should 
be  natural  punishments.  That  is,  they  should  be  direct  con- 
sequence of  the  deed.  Nothing  weakens  the  child's  character, 
and  his  respect  for  law,  quicker  than  the  feeling  that  wrong 
may  be  done  with  impunity,  and  the  beginning  of  dereliction 
should  be  carefully  watched.  Much  attention  can  well  be 
given  to  this  problem  of  discipline,  both  in  the  home  and  in 
the  school.  Discipline  should  always  be  studied,  not  from 
the  end  of  inimediate  correction,  but  for  its  value  for  train- 
ing both  habits  and  ideals. 

Disorderly  Teachers. 

Disorderly  Teachers  are  those  (1)  "Whose  standard  of 
order  is  low,"  says  Hughes.     "Men  cannot  rise  above  their 


HOW  TO  KEEP  ORDER  203 

()\\  a  slaiidards;,  and  tlie}^  cannot  lift  others  above  the  standards 
they  fix  for  themselves.  (2)  Those  ^yllo  think  it  is  'easiest 
to  keep  jDoor  order.'  (3)  Those  who  allow  the  pupils  to  think 
that  submission  is  a  compliment  to  the  teacher.  (4)  Those 
who  think  children  like  disorder.  Children  enjoy  being 
controlled,  much  better  than  having  their  own  way.  (5) 
Those  who  know  the  value  of  order,  and  know  that  they  do 
not  keep  good  order,  but  who  do  not  make  any  conscious 
effort  to  increase  their  power  to  control,  or  to  improve  their 
methods  of  discipline.  (6)  Those  who  say  'Disciplinary 
power  is  a  natural  gift,'  and  on  this  account  justify  their  lack 
of  effort.  (7)  Those  who  try  to  stop  disorder  by  ringing 
a  bell,  striking  a  desk,  etc.  (8)  Those  who  themselves  are 
noisy  and  demonstrative.  It  is  a  blunder  to  attempt  to  drown 
disorder  by  making  more  noise  than  the  pupils  are  making. 
(9)  Those  who  speak  in  a  high  key.  A  high-pitched  voice  is 
exhaustive  to  the  teacher,  and  irritating  to  the  pupils.  (10) 
Those  who  roll  their  eyes — but  do  not  see.  Teachers  should 
cultivate  the  power  to  see  every  pupil  at  the  same  time. 
(11)  Those  who  hurry.  Haste  rarely  produces  speed,  and 
always  leads  to  disorder.  (12)  Those  who  do  not  see  any 
use  in  being  'so  particular  about  trifles.'  (13)  Those  who 
have  order  only  while  they  are  in  the  room.  (14)  Those 
who  believe  in  lecturing  their  classes.  Formal  lecturing  on 
morals  and  duty  does  little  good  to  any  pupil.  (15)  Those 
who  have  not  sufficient  Avill-power  to  insist  on  obedience. 
'Do  you  always  do  what  mamma  tells  you?'  said  a  visiting 
minister  to  a  little  girl.  'Yes,  I  guess  I  do,  and  so  does  papa,' 
was  the  reply.  (16)  Those  who  get  angry  and  scold,  or 
threaten,  when  executing  the  law.  Anger  destroys  dignity, 
and  many  pupils  lose  respect  for  law  itself  because  their 
teachers  adininister  law  in  an  undignified  manner." 


204  THE  E]>K.MENTS  OF   fllllJ)   STUDY 

The  Right  Method  of  Conducting  the  Recitation. 

1.  First  of  all,  .secure  Order,  the  very  moment  you  enter 
the  Class  Form,  not  ten  minutes  later,  after  the  spirit  of 
unrest  has  swept  through  the  scholars. 

2.  Attack  some  educational  subject  of  general  interest, 
that  will  hold  the  attention  of  the  pupils  until  the  school 
has  formally  opened.  With  a  progressive  teacher,  and  ambi- 
tious, wide-awake  children,  this  advance  topic,  the  one  most 
interesting,  uppermost  in  tlie  minds  of  the  children,  eager 
themselves  for  it,  will  be — the  Lesson  itself.  It  will  be  the 
reverse  of  a  certain  class,  conducted  by  a  "wise  young  man" 
in  a  large  city  on  the  8t.  Lawrence,  who  persuaded  his  boys 
to  come  regularly  to  Sunday  School,  and  preserve  order,  on 
condition  that  the  Ijesson  lasted  no  longer  than  fifteen 
minutes,  and  the  rest  of  the  period  be  devoted  to  general 
"talk"  on  baseball  and  kindred  topics.  Granted  that  there  is 
a  place  for  baseball,  and  many  like  subjects,  between  the 
teacher  and  his  pupils;  yet  the  place  is  not  the  Sunday  School 
Lesson  Period. 

3.  In  commencing  to  teach  the  lesson,  conscioush/  look 
out  for  the  Faint  of  best  Contact,  which  will  seldom  be  the 
same.  It  may  even  be  determined  by  certain  local,  secular 
happenings  during  the  week,  which  form  an  entree  to  general 
interest. 

4.  Pj-oceeding  then  from  the  Known  to  the  Unknown, 
deliberately  tale  up  tlie  Freparation  or  Introduction  of  the 
Lesson,  using  broad,  sweeping  Opening  Questions,  linking 
the  new  Topic  to  the  former  Chapters  in  the  Series.  The 
Aim  of  the  new  Lesson  should  be  clearly  presented.  It  holds 
Attention  and  Curiosity. 

5.  Fresent  the  Netv  Lesson,  using  Leading  and  Subsidiary 
Questions,  drawing  out  first  the  personal  contribution  of  the 
Pupils'  own  study  and  research,  rather  than  contributing 
your  own  investigation.     Use   Illustrations  to  clarify   their 


now    TO   KKKl'  ORDER  205 

misunderstandings;  (iucslion  i'urliier  to  make  sure  of  their 
full  comprehension ;  have  a  clear,  perspicuous  outline  or  skele- 
ton, which  will  bind  the  parts  of  the  Lesson  clearly  and 
coherentl}^  together;  secure  frequent  subsidiary  Eeviews  each 
few  minutes,  gathering  together  loose,  disjointed  ends;  rouse 
animated  Class  Discussions  on  live  topics,  but  do  not  let  them 
lead  oft*  from  the  main  subject,  nor  consume  an  undue  pro- 
portion of  time;  fix  the  new  Ideas  firmly  in  memory  by 
lleview,  by  Eepetition;  and  finally  bind  the  whole  Lesson 
together  by  a  rapid  Review  of  all  the  Points  made,  and  Appli- 
cation of  them  in  general,  though  it  is  to  be  remembered  that 
not  every  lesson  need  necessarily  have  a  '^moral"  stated.  Very 
often  the  stating  of  an  obvious  moral  spoils  the  entire  point 
of  it. 

Review  Steps. 

Three  Progressive  steps  are  involved  in  the  reviewing  of 
a  lesson:  a  repetition  of  it,  a  second  view,  or  viewing-again- 
of-it;  and  a  nev\^  view  of  it.  The  repetition  of  it  may  be,  to 
a  certain  extent,  mechanical.  The  second  view  of  it,  or  a 
viewing-again-of-it  may  comprehend  simply  those  elements 
which  were  recognized  in  the  first  view,  or  original  learning, 
of  the  lesson.  This  is  valuable.  The  new  view  of  it,  however, 
seeing  it  in  new  aspects  and  relations,  is  by  far  the  most 
im))ortant  phase  of  reviewing. 

The  reviews  should  be  prepared  by  tlic  teachers  and 
students  as  carefully  as  tlie  original  lesson.  Of  the  methods 
of  conducting  the  lesson  in  the  class-room,  there  are  four 
tbnt  slionld  have  special  attention 

Class  Room  Methods. 

1.  The  Lecture  Method.  V>\  this  method  the  teacher  pro- 
ceeds with  an  orderly  and,  for  the  most  part,  uninterrupted 
presentation   of    the    thought    of    the    lesson.      This    method 


206  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

calls  for  little  or  no  preparation  in  advance  b}'  the  student. 
This  method  is  chiefly  for  adults. 

2.  The  Seminar  Method.  By  this  method  the  members 
of  the  class  are  assigned  topics,  in  the  line  of  which  they 
make  original  investigations,  and  report  their  findings  to  the 
class,  instead  of  being  called  upon  to  make  recitations  from 
specified  portions  of  books.  It  is  almost  needless  to  add  that 
this  method  used  exclusively  is  only  suited  to  more  mature 
students,  and  those  with  trained  minds,  although  with  older 
boys  and  young  men  it  is  possible  to  make  such  original 
investigation  an  incidental  feature  of  class  work. 

3.  The  Recitation,  or  Topic,  Method.  By  this  method 
the  student  is  expected  to  prepare  stated  lessons  from  a 
text  book,  and  to  present  what  he  has  learned  by  topics  as 
they  are  called  for  by  the  teacher. 

4.  The  Question,  or  Conversational,  Method.  By  this 
method,  after  careful  preparation  by  the  teacher  and  student, 
the  former  elicits  the  knowledge  that  the  student  has  of  the 
subject  in  as  orderly  a  fashion  as  possible  by  a  series  of 
questions,  often  resulting  in  the  play  of  conversation  between 
teacher  and  student. 

Balancing  Recitation  with  Instruction. 

Dr.  Eoads  has  an  entire  chapter  dealing  with  this  subject, 
a  comparison  of  which  few  teachers  stop  to  think.  The  men- 
tion of  it,  therefore,  will  be  of  value.  He  says,  rightly,  that 
under  our  present  inane  system,  we  have  almost  all  the  time 
given  to  Instruction,  with  little  or  no  Home  Study,  and  there- 
fore small  amount  of  Eecitation;  while  in  the  Day  School 
this  condition  is  precisely  reversed.  Thus  the  Sunday  School 
has  become  too  far  a  pouring-in  process.  This  is  working  to 
the  manifest  disparagement  of  the  Sunday  School,  which  is 
despised  in  the  eyes  of  the  bright  Public  School  child. 

Therefore,  wisely  balance  Instruction  with  Eecitation. 
Demand,  expect,  and  enforce  Home  Study.     Secure  definite 


HOW  TO  KEEP  ORDER  207 

Recitation  of  tlie  assigned  task.  See  that  tlic  reproduction 
and  elucidation  of  the  set  stint  of  Home  Work  be  not  dis- 
l^laced  by  the  needful  Class  l^iseussiou. 

How  to  Secure  Balance. 

1.  Assign  for  definite  Home  Study  all  within  the  range 
of  the  children's  time,  books,  comprehension.  Exercise  and 
cultivate  their  own  mental  powers.  Let  them  "pick  their  own 
brains,  before  coming  to  pick  yours." 

2.  Have  each  scholar  make  particular  note  of  difficulties, 
inquiries,  doubts,  questions,  etc.,  he  finds  arising,  which  he 
himself  cannot  meet.  If  he  comes  across  a  specially  new  and 
illuminating  discovery,  let  him  contribute  it  to  the  class. 

3.  Instruction,  new  knowledge,  should  be  the  bait  to  the 
class,  the  prize  that  brings  them  there.  There  are,  if  the 
teacher  be  enthusiastic,  "seekers  after  Truth,"  and  the  teacher 
knows  more  than  the  pupils.  Thus  the  little  "philosophers" 
will  seek  the  source  of  Truth. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  is  Order? 

2.  Why  is  it  essential  to  the  highest  development? 

3.  How  is  it  seen  in  business,  in  organization,  etc.? 

4.  Why  is  lack  of  Order  immoral? 

,').  To  what  are  disorderly  schools  due? 

G.  What  are  "Secondary  Ends,"  and  why  are  they  dangerous? 

7.  What  means  are  advised  for  securing  Order? 

8.  What  means  for  keeping  Order? 

9.  What  are  the  three  divisions  of  these  means? 

10.  Which  is  the  highest,  and  why? 

11.  What  is  said  of  Restlessness? 

12.  What  should  be  the  guide  in  selecting  Motives  for  Order? 

13.  Why  is  Manual  Work  advantageous? 

14.  What  are  the  classes  of  Disorderly  Pupils? 

15.  What  is  said  of  Penalties? 

10.    What  are  the  classes  of  Disorderly  Teachers? 

17.  What  rules  are  given  to  secure  Order  in  Recitation? 

18.  State  the  Four  Methods  of  Class-room  Recitation,  and  explain 

each. 

19.  Which  is  used   for  the  varying  ages? 


SYLLABUS  OF  CHArTER  XIH. 
QUESTIONING  AND  TEACHING 

SUGGESTED  READING:  — 

Art  of  Questioning,  Fitch. 
How  TO  Question,  Home. 
Adult  Bible  Classes,  Wood. 
Adult  Class  Study,  Woo(i. 

SUMMARY. 

The  Two  Most  Needful  Things  for  any  Teaclior  in  Classroom  Work 
are — (1)    Expert  Questioning;    (2)    Expert  Story-telling. 

Questioning  is  Needed — (1)  To  Find  Out  what  a  Child  Knows,  for 
further  Teaching;  (2)  To  Discover  Misconceptions;  (.3)  To 
Secure  his  Activity  and  Attention;  (4)  To  Test  the  Result  of 
the  Teacher's  Work. 

Lesson  Books  should  not  contain  Question-rt)jrf-.4j(.s//r;-.  Pioper  Ques- 
tioning should  make  Each  Pupil  a  Diligent  Seeker  after  Truth, 
by  Stimulating  Action. 

Kinds  of  Questions,  according  to  Character — (1)  Descriptive 
(  What  ? )  ;    ( 2 )   Narrati  ve   ( How  ? )  ;    ( 3 )    Kxpla natory    (  Why  ? ) 

Another  Divisicm,  according  to  Purpose — (1)  Fact  Questions:  (2) 
Thought  (Questions.  Fact  Questions  entirely  up  to  nine  years. 
Fact  and  Thought  u]i  to  twelve.  Tliouglit  ])n'p()ndciatiiig  from 
twelve  on. 

Divisions  aceoiding  to  Lesson —  (1)  Preliminary — Preparation. 
(2)  Leading  Questions — Presentation:  (.*{)  Frequent  Review 
Questions — .\ss()ciation  :  (4)  I'^inal  Kexicw  (,)ii('sti(ins — Kecapitn- 
lation  and  Ajjplication. 

It  is  only  by  wise  Questioning  that  we  arous(>  Curiosity.  A  child 
mentally  healthy  should  naturally  (juestion  hack  to  satisfy  his 
hunger  for  Knowledge.  '['eaciiers  who  repress  this  spirit  of 
Questioning,  make  youth,  draw  in,  in  ignorant  silence,  the  rest 
of  their  lives. 


QUESTIONrNG  AND  TEACHING  20!) 

Jlow  to  l^i'iUii  to  QiK'stioii — (1)  J^i.sti'ii  to  <^>iicstioiis  of  Cliildicn ; 
(2)  Ask  Questions  of  Otlicrs;  (3)  Write  New  (Questions  to  l-lacli 
Lesson  ;    ( 4 )   Study  (Question  Jiooks. 

Nature  of  rro])er  Questions;  (1)  (Simple;  (2)  Sliort;  (3)  Giving 
no  Information;  (4)  With  Short  Answers;  (5)  With  Entire 
Sentences  for  Answers;  (0)  Not  Vague;  (7)  One  Possible  An- 
swer Only;  (8)  Not  Unanswerable:  (9)  Seldom  Answerable  by 
"Yes"  or  "No";  (10)  Without  Doubt  as  to  Meaning;  (11)  Defi- 
nite; (12)  Composite  Enough  to  Require  Thought;  (13)  Ani- 
mated and  Lively;  (14)  Never  Kepeat  Wrong  Answers; 
(15)  Give  Eesearch  Questions;  (10)  Name  Pupils  after  Stating 
(Question;  (17)  Question  in  Uncertain  Order;  (18)  Give  Alert 
(Questions  to  the  Inattentive;  (1!))  Give  Questions  with  Short 
Answers  for  Younger  Children;  (20)  A  Simple  Question  Need 
not  be  Easy. 

Older  Pupils  and  Adults.  They  are  to  be  taught  to  Think  and 
Reason.    Guide  them  by  Indirection.     Get  Chass  Discussion. 

Pupils  in  All  Classes  should  be  heard  Talking  More  than  the 
Teachers. 


CHAl'TF.R  XIII. 

QUESTIONING    AND    TEACHING 

The   Importance  of  Questioning. 

Two  of  the  most  noted  leaders  in  Education  now  living 
have,  each  in  his  own  educational  work,  emphasized  the  im- 
])oi'tance  of  Questioning  and  Illustrating.  The  one  has  said 
that,  of  all  things,  the  teacher  ought  to  be  expert  in  question- 
ing. The  other  has  said  that,  of  all  things, .  the  teacher 
ought  to  be  able  to  illustrate  irelt  hij  storij-telling.  We  miglit 
combine  the  two  opinions,  and  state  tluit  the  two  essentials 
of  a  proper  recitation  are  Questioning  and  Illustrating.  All 
lesson  books  are  provided  with  questions,  but  all  (|uestions 
are  not  good  Questions.  All  teachers  question,  l)iit  I'cw  teach- 
ers question  either  properly  or  well. 

The  true  educator  should  not  only  spend  nu)i(>  time  in 
questioning  than  in  lecturing,  but  the  questions  should  bo 
those  of  a  teacher,  and  not  those  of  an  examiner. 

Questions  are  important,  (t)  to  find  out  Avhat  the  child 
knows  in  order  to  ])rcpare  him  for  fui'thcr  learning,  i.e.,  the 
Point  of  Contact,  in  order  to  graft  the  unknown  to  the  known. 
(2)  To  discover  his  misconceptions  and  diHicuUies,  in  order 
to  clear  them  out  of  the  way.  {'■))  To  secure  his  activity  and 
attention  during  tlu;  teacbing  boiir.  (I)  To  test  the  result 
of  what  has  been  taught. 

it  is  not  easy  to  ask  pi'o|»(M-  ((lu^stions.  "Any  fool  can 
ask  a   (|ii('slion,"  says   the  ])i-o\('i'b,  and  'Mv.   Holmes  naively 


(^l  KSTIONIXC;^  AND  TKAClllNC;  211 

adds:  "No  J'ool  ciiii  ask  a  wise  one."     It  takes  carel'iil  study 
of  till'  niaierial  taught  to  I'l-ame  judicious  questions. 
Method  of  Sunday  School  Questioning. 

All  leading  educators  arc  agreed  on  the  point  that  Lesson 
Books  should  not,  as  a  rule,  contain  Question-and- Answer. 
The  Answer  should  be  sought  for.  Fitch  does  allow  that 
the  Episcopal  Church  Catechism  is  the  most  ideal  bit  of 
Question-and-Answer  Production  ever  framed;  but  even  this 
must  be  cautiously  used.  The  general  use  of  Question-and- 
Answer  Books  is  unpedagogical,  unnatural,  about  fifty  yeai's 
behind  the  times,  and,  fortunately,  rapidly  passing  away. 
Xor  should  the  answers  to  the  questions  for  home  study  be 
found  directly  Avith  the  questions.  The  pupil  should  search 
for  them,  as  near  to  the  original  Source  as  possible.  xVgain, 
while  questions  in  text  books  for  home  study  are  proper  guid- 
ing-strings for  teacher  and  pupils,  the  best  and  the  most 
natural  work  in  class  will  be  accomplished  with  the  lesson 
books  laid  aside,  with  new  and  original  questions  asked,  and 
the  lesson  "developed"  apparently  (though  not  really,  for  all 
has  been  carefully  planned  at  home)  off-hand  by  the  teacher. 
Imagine  a  teacher  in  geography  in  public  school  (and  remem- 
ber your  ])U})ils  live  five  days  in  that  atmosphere)  reading 
with  difficulty,  through  a  pair  of  glasses,  questions  on  tlie 
location  of  Xew  England  Manufactories,  as  she  bends  over 
a  cramped  and  scrawly  paper.  Says  Fitch :  ''That  is  the  best 
questioning  which  stimulates  action  on  the  part  of  the  hearer, 
and  gives  him  a  habit  of  thinking  and  enquiring  for  himself 
— which  makes  him  rather  a  skilful  finder,  than  a  patient 
receiver  of  the  truth."  There  is  only  one  kind  of  action  we 
can  surmise  as  likely  to  be  "stimulated"  by  much  of  the 
Sunday  School  Questioning. 
Kinds  of  Questions. 

Professor  F.  A.  Manny,  quoting  from  Fitch,  gives  three 
kinds  of  Questions:      (1)    Descriptive  Questions,  mere  fact. 


212  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

with  typical  word  "What?"  (2)  Narrative,  process  or  method, 
with  typical  word  "How?"  (3)  Explanatory,  iiicaning  or  use, 
with  typical  word  "Why  ?" 

Perhaps  a  simpler  and  better  division  of  Questions,  rrom 
the  viewpoint  of  internal  character  is  that  of  Professor  Mc- 
Murry,  into  Fact  Questions  and  Thouglit  (Questions.  The 
former  are  "Wlio?"  "Wliere?"  "Wliat?"  the  latter  are  "How?" 
and  "Why?"  Fact  Questions  sliouhl  be  the  almost  exclusive 
type  before  tlie  age  of  8  or  9;  tliey  shoukl  predominate,  with 
some  'J'houglit  (Questions,  from  that  age  to  Adolescence  (Pi 
years  on)  ;  while  they  should  he  subsidiary  lo  Thought  (^hies- 
tions  from  Adolescence  onwai'd.  This  is  hecause  the  former 
are  concrete,  and  belong  to  the  concrete  age,  the  age  of  Ac- 
quisition; while  the  latter  are  more  abstract,  and  come  in 
gradual!}',  as  Reflection  develops.  'J'his  differentiation  should 
be  constantly  borne  in  mind. 

Professor  McMnrry,  looking  at  it  from  the  viewpoint  of 
the  lesson,  recognizes  (1)  Preliminary  Questions.  One 
should  start  off  with  some  broad,  searching,  all-round  Eeview 
Question,  that  gets  the  pupils  at  once  in  touch  witli  the  lesson 
for  the  day;  rounds  them  up,  so  to  speak;  collects  their  wits; 
connects  the  new  with  the  old ;  focuses  the  gist  of  the  previous 
lessons,  and  unites  them  all  together  into  a  well-knit  scheme. 
Sorne  large  "left-over  problem"  from  a  previous  lesson;  some 
wide  generalization  that  would  come  from  the  comparison  of 
a  large  number  of  formerly  considered  facts — such  are  excel- 
lent "starters." 

(2)  Leading  Questions,  around  which  shorter,  subsidiary 
ones  are  welded.  These  leading  questions  form  tlie  backbone, 
or  skeleton,  of  the  lesson  plan,  in  the  new  material. 

(3)  Frequent  Review  Questions,  which  sum  up  the  points 
made  thus  far  in  new  work.  Children's  memories  arc  short 
at  first,  and  their  "weaving  ability"  limited.  The  younger 
th(>   cljildi'cn,   the    morc^  needful    this    "•ntbei'ing   together   of 


QUESTIONING  AND  TEACHING  213 

points  and  loose  ends.  Every  five  minutes  or  so,  sum  up,  with 
"Let's  see  wliere  we  are.  Wliat  new  facts  have  we  learned?'' 
This  recapitulation  drives  new  material  home  "appercep- 
tively." 

(4)  Final  Eeview  Questions  that  gather  up  the  scheme  of 
the  entire  lesson.  Thus  we  also  connect  the  present  lesson 
with  a  few  words  on  the  following  one  for  next  week.  We 
have  here  again  the  "formal  steps'"  of  teaching  reproduced 
in  Questioning,  i.e..  Preparation,  Presentation,  Association 
or  Comparison,  Generalization,  Application. 

Curiosity  Kindled  by  Questions. 

It  is  chiefly  hy  wise  questioning,  even  before  the  lesson 
has  been  taught,  that  we  are  able  to  kindle  in  a  child  the 
feeling  of  Curiosity.  To  make  him  feel  the  need  of  instruc- 
tion, and  bring  his  intellect  into  a  teachable  condition,  the 
child  should,  from  the  start,  become  accustomed,  not  only  to 
being  questioned  but,  to  question.  Unless  the  child  were  a 
questioner  at  the  outset  of  his  life,  he  could  make  no  progress 
in  knowledge;  and  if  the  child  were  forced  to  stop  his  ques- 
tions, there  would  be  an  end  at  once  to  his  advancement. 

Questioning  is  an  appetite,  and  the  child  who  has  no 
inclination  to  question  is  in  danger  of  mental  death  and  stag- 
nation. Unfortunately  the  child's  questioning  meets  witli 
rebuff  on  every  side,  from  the  impatient  parent,  who  says 
"Don't  bother  me  with  questions,"  to  the  Sunday  School, 
and  sometimes  tlie  Day  School,  teacher,  wlio  "bluffs  off"  ques- 
tions because  he  is  afraid  lie  migiit  be  unable  to  answer  them. 
Sooner  or  later,  the  child  comes  to  feel  tliat  the  fewer  ques- 
tions he  asks  the  better  it  will  be;  and,  by  the  time  he  has 
reached  youth,  he  who  was  brimming  over  with  questions  in 
childhood,  seeking  knowledge  of  the  world,  seems  to  be  willing 
to  live  and  die  in  ignorance,  rather  than  draw  criticism  and 
attention  to  himself  by  asking  questions  that  might  either 


2U  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

annoy  others,  or  seem  discreditaMe  to  liinisell'.  "'riiat  boy's 
questions  will  worry  my  life  out.  Jle  is  always  asking  ques- 
tions; and  such  questions.  1  ean"t  stand  it."  This  is  said 
ijy  many  a  father  oi-  mother  whose  child  is  full  of  promise, 
largely  because  he  is  full  of  questions. 

How  to  Learn  How  to  Question. 

Holmes  tells  us  (1)  Listen  to  the  questions  of  children; 
(2)  Ask  cj[uestions  often  of  others;  (;5)  Write  questions  out 
at  home  on  each  lesson.  This  should  always  be  done  to  clarify 
the  lesson  in  your  own  mind,  and  give  you  confidence  and 
ease,  no  matter  if  the  lesson  be  supplied  with  good  questions 
already.  ]\lake  up  new  ones,  (-i)  Study  C^uestion  Books. 
This  is  about  the  only  use  we  can  see  in  most  of  the  Series 
of  such  manuals  extant. 

Character  of  Questions  You  are  to  Form. 

Fitch  gives  the  following  helpful  and  ])regnant  sugges- 
tions and  maxims : 

1.  The  language  of  questions.  Cultivate  great  simplicity 
of  language.  Use  as  few  words  as  possible,  and  let  them  be 
such  as  are  adapted  to  the  age  and  capacity  of  the  class  you 
are  teaching.  Eememher  that  {[uestions  are  not  meant  to 
display  your  own  learning  or  acquirements,  but  to  draw  out 
the  thoughts  of  the  children.  Jt  is  a  great  jioint  in  (pu'stion- 
ing  to  say  as  little  as  possible;  and  so  to  say  that  liitle  as  to 
cause  the  children  to  say  as  much  as  possible.  Conduct  your 
lessons  in  such  a  way  that,  if  a  visitor  or  superintendent  be 
standing  by,  his  attention  will  he  directed,  not  to  you,  but 
to  your  |)U])ils;  and  his  aduiiralion  excited,  not  by  your  skill 
and  keenness,  but  by  the  aiuounl  of  lucntal  activity  disjilayed 
on  their  part. 

2.  Do  not  give  infoiinalion  in  (he  questions.  Do  not  tell 
riiucli  ill.  your  questions.  Never,  if  you  can  help  it,  com- 
municalc  a   fact  in  youi-  (piestion.     Contrive  to  educe  every 


<,)rJ^S'll()XIX(;   AM)    IKACIIIXG  215 

fact  from  the  class.  Jt  is  lu'tter  to  ynxw^v  for  a  inomciit ,  ami 
to  put  one  or  two  sulionlinate  quest  ions,  willi  a  view  to  hriiiii- 
ing  out  the  truths  you  arc  .scckiii_ii',  than  to  tell  anything 
which  the  cliiklren  could  tell  you.  A  good  teacher  never  con- 
veys information  in  the  form  of  a  ([uestion.  II'  he  tells  his 
class  something,  it  is  not  long  hefore  he  makes  his  class  tell 
him  the  same  thing  again:  hut  Ids  question  never  assumes 
the  same  form,  or  employs  the  same  jjhraseology  as  his  pre- 
vious statement;  for,  if  it  does,  the  form  of  the  question  really 
suggests  the  answer,  and  the  exercise  fails  to  challenge  the 
judgment  and  memory  of  the  children  as  it  ought  to  do. 

3.  Get  entire  sentences  for  answers.  \  teacher  ought  not. 
in  fact,  to  he  satisfied  until  he  can  get  entire  sentences  for 
answers.  These  sentences  will  generally  he  paraphrases  of  the 
words  used  in  the  lesson,  and  the  materials  for  making  the 
paraphrases  will  have  hcen  developed  in  the  course  of  the 
lesson,  hy  denuinding,  in  succession,  meanings  and  equivalents 
for  all  the  principal  words.  Eememhcr  that  the  mere  ahility 
to  fill  up  a  parenthetical,  or  elliptical,  sentence,  proves  nothing 
heyond  the  possession  of  a  little  tact,  and  verbal  memory. 
It  is  Avortli  while  to  turn  ai'ound  shai'ply  on  some  inatten- 
tive member  of  the  class,  or  upon  .some  one  who  has  given 
a  mechanical  answer,  with  "^'Tell  me  what  we  have  Just  learned 
about  such  a  jierson."  Observe  that  the  answer  required 
to  such  a  <|uestion  must  necessarily  be  a  whole  sentence;  it 
will  be  impossible  to  auswei-  it  without  a  real  elt'ort  of  thought 
and  of  judgment. 

-I.  ])o  vol  /ml  r(i(/ne  (/iicsl ions.  It  is  of  gi-eat  importance. 
also,  that  questions  shouM  be  delinite  and  unmistakable,  and. 
for  the  most  ])art,  that  tlie\-  admit  of  but  one  answer.  An 
unskilful  teacher  puts  vague,  wide  ([uestions,  such  as  ''What 
did  he  do?"  "What  did  .\braham  say?""  "irow  did  Joseph 
feel  at  such  a  time?""  "What  lesson  ought  \\v  to  learn  from 
this?"'  questions  to  which,  no  doubt,  he  sees  the  right  answei', 


216  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

because  it  is  already  iu  his  mind;  Init  M'liicli,  perhaps,  admit 
of  several  equally  good  answers,  according  to  tlie  way  the 
different  minds  look  at  them,  lie  does  not  think  of  this;  he 
fancies  that  what  is  so  clear  to  him  ought  to  be  equally  clear 
to  others;  he  forgets  that  the  minds  of  the  children  may  be 
moving  on  other  rails,  so  to  speak,  even  though  directed  to  the 
same  goal.  So,  when  an  answer  comes  which  is  not  the  one 
he  expected,  even  though  it  is  a  perfectly  legitimate  one,  he 
rejects  it;  while,  if  any  child  is  fortunate  enough  to  give  the 
precise  answer  which  was  in  the  teacher's  mind,  he  is  com- 
mended and  rewarded,  even  though  he  has  exerted  no  more 
thought  on  the  subject. 

5.  Do  not  ash  Questions  iliat  cannot  he  answered.  For 
similar  reasons  it  is  generally  necessary  to  abstain  from  giv- 
ing questions  to  which  we  have  no  reasonable  riglit  to  expect 
an  answer.  Technical  terms,  and  information  children  are 
not  likely  to  possess,  ought  not  to  be  demanded.  Nor  should 
questions  be  repeated  to  those  who  cannot  answer.  A  still 
more  objectionable  practice  is  that  of  suggesting  the  first 
word  or  two  of  a  sentence,  or  pronouncing  the  first  syllable 
of  a  word  which  the  children  do  not  recollect.  All  these 
errors  generate  a  habit  of  guessing  among  the  scholars,  and  we 
should  ever  bear  in  mind  that  there  is  no  one  habit  more 
fatal  to  accurate  thinking,  or  more  likely  to  encourage  shal- 
lowness and  self-deception,  than  this.  It  should  be  discoun- 
tenanced in  every  possible  way;  and  the  most  effective  way 
is  to  study  well  the  form  of  our  questions,  to  consider  well 
whether  they  are  quite  intelligible  and  unequivocal  to  those 
to  whoni  they  are  addressed,  and  to  limit  them  to  those  points 
on  which  we  have  a  right  to  expect  clear,  definite  answers. 

6.  Do  not  give  questions  tliat  onhj  require  "Yes"  or  "No" 
for  an  answer.  There  is  a  class  of  questions  which  hardly 
deserve  the  name,  and  which  are,  in  fact,  fictitious  or  ap- 
parent, but  not  true  questions.     I  mean  those  which  simply 


QUESTIONING  AND  TEACHING  217 

require  the  answer  "Yes"  or  "iSTo."  Nineteen  such  questions 
out  of  twenty  carr}^  their  own  answers  in  them;  for  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  propose  one  without  revealing,  by  the 
tone  and  inflexion  of  the  voice,  the  kind  of  answer  you  expect. 
For  example :  "Is  it  right  to  honor  our  parents  ?"  "Did 
Abraham  show  much  faith  when  he  offered  up  his  son  ?"  "Do 
you  think  the  author  of  the  Psalms  was  a  good  man  ?''  "Were 
tlie  Pliarisees  really  lovers  of  truth?"  Questions  like  these 
elicit  no  thought  whatever;  there  are  but  two  j)ossible  answers 
to  each  of  them,  and  of  these  1  am  sure  to  show,  by  my 
manner  of  putting  tlie  question,  which  one  I  expect.  Such 
questions  should,  therefore,  as  a  general  rule,  l>e  avoided,  as 
they  seldom  serve  any  useful  purpose,  either  in  teaching  or 
examining.  For  every  question,  it  must  be  rememl)ered; 
ought  to  require  an  effort  to  answer  it;  it  may  ])e  an  effort 
of  memory,  or  an  effort  of  imagination,  or  an  effort  of  Judg- 
ment, or  an  effort  of  perception;  it  may  be  a  considerable 
effort,  or  it  may  be  a  slight  one,  1)ut  it  must  l)e  an  effort ;  and 
a  question  Avhich  challenges  no  mental  exertion  whatever,  and 
does  not  make  the  learner  think,  is  worth  nothing.  Hence, 
however  such  simple  affirmative  and  negative  replies  may  look 
like  work,  they  may  co-exist  with  utter  stagnation  of  mind  on 
the  part  of  the  scholars,  and  with  complete  ignorance  of 
what  we  are  attempting  to  teach. 

7.  Make  questions  that  are  clear,  and  without  doubt  as  to 
meaning.  Do  not  have  those  that  are  capable  of  two  or  moi-e 
answers,  as  "Who  was  an  Apostle  of  Jesus?" 

8.  Mal-e  questions  as  sliort  as  possible.  One  question 
seen  recently  had  thirty-four  words  in  it.  Lawyers'  "hypo- 
thetical questions"  may  be  interesting  to  us,  but  not  to  chil- 
dren. You  need  not  state  numerous  facts,  as  a  preliminary 
to  your  interrogation  point. 

9.  Place  i/our  qnestions  in  definite,  progressire,  pJanned- 
oiil  onlcr.     You  Avaiit  oi'flcr  in  recit.ition. 


21S  TJIK  KLK.MKNTS  OF  CHILD   STUJ)Y 

1(1.  Asli-  (jite-stiuiis  of  a  coinpufiite  enaiKjIt  cliitniclrr  tliat 
ijoitr  (iiistrers  require  Ihottghi. 

11.  (Juentioim  should  he  aniniated  and  lireJi/.  not  dull 
and  dead.  Live  issues  should  be  selected,  and  the  manner 
briglit. 

12.  Wrong  answers  should  xot  he  repealed,  since  this 
only  assists  in  making  the  wrong  impression  stronger. 

13.  Throw  out  questions  for  research  and  personal  indi- 
vidual investigation,  perhaps  eveu  from  other  than  usual 
lesson  sources.  Let  pu])ils  question  each  other,  thus  ])rovok- 
ing  the  spirit  of  incjuiry.  Tlw  gist  and  hasis  ol'  all  fruiirul 
recitation  work  in  class  will  he  the  cultivation  of  "The  In- 
(piiring  Spirit,'"  so  that  pmiils  constantly  ask  "Who?" 
"What?"  "How?"  "When?"  etc. 

14.  Propound  the  question  first,  and  c<dl  Uie  name  of  tlie 
sludent  wlio  is  to  answer  aflerward.  This  will  insure  the 
attention  of  all,  because  of  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  jjcrson 
wlio  is  to  recite.  Xo  intiuuition  should  be  given  to  the  student 
whom  you  intend  to  call  on,  e\(Mi  hy  looking  at  him  while  tlie 
question  is  being  fi-amed. 

15.  Questions  sliould  not  he  aslied  of  memhers  of  lite  class 
in  regular  rotation,  either  in  alphabetical  order,  or  in  the 
order  of  their  seating.  In  order  to  insure  an  o])portunity  for 
all  to  recite,  the  names  of  members  of  tlie  class  might  be 
written  on  slips,  sliuffled  together,  and  then  drawn  out  at 
random. 

10.  Address  questions  to  tlie  inatlenlirc.  but  (hi  not  re- 
]ieat  the  question  if,  in  their  inattention,  they  have  not  heard 
it.  Questions  should  be  put  with  promptness  and  animation. 
Alert  questions  will  stimulate  prompt  rt'plics.  U'hile  ques- 
tions shouhl  follow  one  another  without  delay,  reasonal)le 
time  should  be  given  for  an  intelligent  rejdy. 

17.  Tn  his  Priimer.  Professor  Adams  ])oints  out  that: 
"7/  is  a  niishdre  to  asl,-  (jiieslions  irhirh  iiirolrr  Uiikj  ansirers, 


Qri:STI()XI.\(i  AX])  TEACHING  219 

l)iii'(iciil;wly  in  the  e-ase  ol'  tlie  younger  jnipils.  It  is  one 
thing  to  know;  it  is  another  to  express.  A  child  may  know- 
not  onlv  tlio  story  implied  in-  a  ])aralile,  l)ut  also  the  under- 
lying meaning,  and  yet  he  unahle  to  "(Jive  an  aeeount  of  the 
])aral)le.'  At  the  early  stages  all  (piestions  should  he  direet; 
i.e.,  they  should  be  real  (piestions  demanding  definite  an- 
swers.'' 

]8.  Again  according  to  Professor  Adams:  "To  he  si  in  pie. 
a  quesfion  need  not  he  east/.  'Who  is  the  author  of  the  hook 
of  llehrews?"  is  a  simple,  hut  very  dillieult,  question.  A\'hat 
is  specially  meant  hy  simplicity  in  cpiestions  is  what  may  he 
called  their  singleness,  i.e.,  only  one  thing  should  l)e  asked 
at  a  time.  Teachers  who  do  not  prepare  their  work  not 
infrequently  stumble  into  questions  which  involve  several 
independent  ansAvers ;  and,  still  more  frequently,  they  change 
the  form  of  the  question  two  or  three  times  before  they  finally 
leave  it  for  the  pupil.  This  careless  "^thinking  aloud,'  this 
making  up  of  questions  that  ought  to  have  been  carefully 
l)repared  beforehand,  is  disconcerting  to  the  pupils,  who  fre- 
quently answer  some  of  the  rejected  forms  of  the  question 
instead  of  the  final  form." 
Questioning  Older  Pupils. 

The  teacher  of  older  pupils  must  never  forget  that  he 
is  not  doing  elementary  teaching.  He  is  leading  his  pupils 
to  think,  to  relate  thoughts,  to  secure  a  vision.  He  aims  to 
make  the  student  think  for  liimself.  The  difference  between 
the  questioning  of  younger  pupils,  and  that  of  elementary 
ones,  marks  the  difference  between  Eastern  and  Western 
courses.  In  the  East,  students  commit  verbatim  material 
to  memory.  In  the  West,  students  are  trained  to  independ- 
ent thought  and  criticism.  It  spells  the  difference  between 
Confucius  and  Socrates. 

The  more  a  teacher  and  an  older  class  are  in  sympathetic 
touch,   the  (|U('stioning   will   lessen    in   importance.      \i  best, 


220  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

questioning  is  a  drawing  out  process.  'JMie  adult  class  is 
best  led  by  indirection.  The  suggestion  is  thrown  out.  A 
question  is  projDounded  021  which  there  are  several  sides,  and 
which  will  arouse  discussion.  Pupils  are  led  to  question 
each  other,  and  to  question  the  leader.  Everyone  is  aroused 
to  seek  knowledge  and  other's  views  until  there  is  a  perfect 
whirlwind  both  of  contriluition  and  oC  cooperation. 

Proper  Recitation   Balance  in   Questioning. 

lu  younger  classes  we  should  expect  that  thc'  [)upils  will 
be  heard  about  Iwo-ihirds  of  the  time,  and  ihe  teacher's 
voice  one-third,  though  of  course  this  statement  is  only 
approximate.  As  regards  lecturing  and  (piestioning  with 
younger  classes,  questioning  should  predominate;  and,  as 
we  have  seen  from  the  statement  at  thc  beginning  of  this 
paragraph,  the  questioning  should  be  mainly  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils.  Of  course,  the  teacher  has  to  he  the  leader,  and 
guide  the  recitation. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  What  are  the  two  most  needful  things  for  a  teacher   in   class- 
room work? 

2.  Why  is  Questioning  needed? 

3.  What  should  proper  lesson  books  not  contain?    Why? 

4.  Wliat  arc  the  Divisions  of  Questions  according  to  Clia racier? 

5.  What  are  the  Divisions  of  Questions  according  lo  Purpose? 
G.    What  are  the  Divisions  of  Questions  according  to  Lessons? 

7.  Explain  each. 

8.  How  do  we  arouse  Curiosity? 

9.  What  is  the  danger  of  repressing  children's  Questions? 

10.  How  can  we  learn  to  question  ? 

11.  What  are  proper  Questions? 

12.  How  do  we  deal   differently   with   Older   Pupils   and   Adults   in 

this  matter? 
];5.    What  slioiild  he  ilic  ratio  in  conversation  as  lo  tlic  'j'caciifr  and 
tlie   Pu])ils   in   any   class? 


SYLLABUS  OF  CHAPTER  XIV. 
HOW  TO   USE  STORIES,   ILLUSTRATIONS,   AND   OBJECTS 

SUGGESTED  READING:— 

Pictures  and  Picture  Work,  Hervey. 
Stories  and  How  to  Tell  Them,  St.  John. 
Handwork  in  the  Sunday  School,  Littlefield. 
Manual  Work  for  the  Sunday  School,  Sexton. 

SUMMARY. 

Imagination  is  very  strong  in  Early  Childhood.  Develops  shortly 
after  Perception.  It  is  met  by  Stories  and  Illustrations.  Illus- 
trations are  Pegs  on  which  to  hang  Truth. 

Illustration  appeals  to — (1)  Eye;  (2)  Memory;  (3)  Touch;  (4) 
Imagination;    (5)   Reason. 

Dangers  in  Illustration — (1)  Use  too  many;  (2)  Use  too  broad; 
(3)   Use  carelessly. 

Characteristics  of  Good  Illustration — (1)  Main  Story;  (2)  Side 
Lights. 

Marks  of  a  Good  Story — (1)  A  concrete,  striking  Beginning;  (2)  A 
Climax;    (3)   Sometimes  Rhythm,  Recurrence;    (4)   Unity. 

Points  in  Story-telling — (1)  Use  Direct  Discourse;  (2)  Choose 
Actions;  (3)  Use  Concrete  Terms;  (4)  Cultivate  Taste;  (5)  Be 
full  of  the  Story,  and  do  your  hcf<t. 

Brief  Rules— (1)  See  it;  (2)  Feel  it ;  (3)  Shorten  it ;  (4)  Expand 
it;    (5)   Master  it;    (6)   Repeat  it. 

How  to  Learn  How  to  Illustrate — (1)  Study  Models,  (a)  Ancient, 
(6)   Modern;    (2)    Prepare  Carefully. 

Illustrative  Material — (1)  Objects  of  Nature;  (2)  Human  Activi- 
ties; (3)  Anecdotes  from  History;  (4)  From  Literature;  (.1) 
Current  Anecdotes;    (G)   Offhand  Sketches;    (7)   Religious  Art. 

Types  of  Pictures — (1)  For  Small  Children,  those  of  God's  Love, 
Care,  Action,  Symbolic,  etc.  Seldom  of  Pain  and  Suffering.  Nor 
the  Abstract  nor  most  Old  IVIasters.  (2)  Use  the  best  ^fodern 
Painters. 


222  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CJIIIJ)   STUDY 

Distinguisli  between  Imaginary  and  Real  Pictures.  (I)  Use  Real 
for  Scenery  always,  as  the  setting-  to  the  Bible  Story;  (2)  Point 
out  that  no  Bible  Picture  is  real;  but  imaginative. 

Stereoscopic  Work  should  also  be  carefully  graded,  and  used  in  all 
Schools. 

Manual  Work.  I.  Illustrative  Book  Work.  Appeals  to  all  (Irades, 
but  especially  to  Kindergarten  and  Prinuiry.  (1)  Picture  Mount- 
ing; (2)  Picture  Moxmting  and  Pasted  Bible  Clippings:  (3)  Pic- 
ture Mounting  and  Written  Description;  (4)  Picture  Mounting 
and  Essays.  II.  Map-making  in  Relief.  (1)  Pressed  j\Iaps 
colored;  (2)  Sand  Table;  (3)  Paper  Pulp.  III.  :\Iap-niaking  in 
the  Flat.     IV.  Modelic  Work. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

HOW  TO   USE   STORIES,   ILLUSTRATIONS,   AND   OBJECTS 

Illustrations,  and   How  to  Use  Them — Stories  and  Parables. 

We  have  already  taken  notice  of  the  strong  part  whicli 
Imagination  plays  in  the  child-life.  Imagination  develops 
shortly  after  Perception,  and  requires  wise  training,  just 
as  the  former  power  does.  We  recognize  that  a  child  exag- 
gerates, and  seemingly  lies,  because  it  does  not  perceive 
properly;  and  we  accordingly  educate  the  perceptions  to 
truer  discernment,  through  more  careful  observation.  The 
Imagination  is  of  value,  because  through  Stories  and  Illus- 
trations we  reach  the  child's  mind,  and  the  child's  interests. 
in  a  concrete  form. 

This  is  the  avenue  of  approacli,  the  Point  of  CJontact, 
by  which  Bible  trutlis  may  be  imparted,  without  dulness. 
Stanley  Hall  once  said  that  of  all  things  which  a  teacher 
should  know  how  to  do,  the  most  important,  without  any 
exception,  is  to  l)e  al)le  to  tell  a  story.  It  is  almost  the 
main  part  of  teaching.  The  child's  thirst  for  stories  is 
marvellous.  Froebel  has  called  Story-telling  a  "veritable 
spirit  bath,  in  wliich  eye,  hand  and  ear,  open  to  the  genuine 
story-teller.''  Stories  win  attention.  They  fix  the  truth 
in  the  mind.  They  are  the  pegs,  as  it  were,  on  which  facts 
are  hung.  Tliey  arc  the  jncturesqne  eye  glasses,  througii 
which  triitli  enters  the  intellect. 
To  What  Does  Illustration  Appeal? 

The  Eev.  Tl.  S.  Holmes  in  Sunday  Scttool  Science  says 
that  Illustration  ajipoals:  "(1)  to  Sight.     It  attracts  the  Eye. 


224  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

It  lays  before  it  pictures,  maps,  objects,  and  causes  it  to  see 
in  these  things  likeness  of  truth,  or  evidences  of  what  has 
occurred,  or  the  places  where  things  have  happened,  in  their 
relations  to  the  pupil's  own  time  and  place.  (3)  To  Memory. 
It  appeals  to  the  memory,  and  asks  it  to  reproduce  from  its 
store  the  full  particulars  of  something  which  it  suggests  in 
part.  (3)  I'o  Touch.  It  comes  to  tlie  hand,  and  asks  it  to 
help  in  giving  an  idea  of  length,  breadth,  height,  etc.,  by 
serving  itself  as  a  measure.  (4)  To  Imagination.  Here 
it  opens  a  wonderful  world.  Here  are  aroused  similes, 
metaphors,  vivid  portraits  in  the  picture  gallery  of  the  brain. 
It  is  the  world  of  illustrative  fictions;  not  falsehoods,  but 
fictions,  figments,  things  made  in  this  enchanted  chamber 
of  the  brain.  (5)  To  Beason.  It  lays  hold  on  the  logical 
faculties,  and  makes  them  serve.  Comparisons  are  made 
between  truth  and  natural  objects." 
Dangers  in  Illustration. 

Several  dangers  are  mentioned  by  the  same  author  that 
are  worth  considering  here:  (1)  Some  persons  use  too  much 
lUiistration.  They  are  like  college  boys,  wlio  spend  too 
much  time  on  the  football  field  to  the  neglect  of  their  studies. 
It  is  as  if  a  house  were  all  decoration  outside,  with  no 
furniture  witliin.  (2)  t^oriie  Jlhisiraiions  are  too  broad. 
Fiction  and  ti'utli  are  too  mueli  blended,  or,  I'nther,  there 
has  JK'on  too  mueli  fiction.  The  I'ruth  is  lost  sight  ol'  in  the 
haystack  of  fiction.  These  Ilhistrations  caiTy  aid  to  some 
thouglit  far  from  their  purpose.  ^Piiey  often  defeat  the  end 
of  their  use.  Of  such  beware.  (;))  Ilhislndlous  arc  used 
too  carelessly.  'J'hey  illustrate  too  much,  and  so  defeat  their 
own  end.  Some  persons  occasionally  use  Illustrations  only 
for  effect,  to  cover  up  insunieient  ])reparation. 
Characteristics  of  a  Good  illustration. 

Dr.    llervey,    a   master    in    illustrating,    has    devoted    an 
entire  book  to  PicturI':  Work.     ITe  notes  two  distinctions 


HOW  TO  USE  STORIES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS  225 

to  be  always  borne  in  mind:  (1)  The  Main  Story,  the  skele- 
ton on  which  we  build.  "Not  merely  for  children,  but  for 
grown  folk,  too,  is  picture- work  a  means  of  teaching.  In  a 
densely  populated  quarter  of  New  York  City  there  is  to-day 
a  minister  who  is  not  content  with  mere  word  pictures.  He 
brings  into  the  pulpit  the  objects  themselves — it  may  be  a 
candle,  a  plumb-line,  a  live  frog,  an  air  pump.  With  him 
the  method  is  a  success,  as  it  has  been  with  others.  Does 
tliis  seem  crude  ?  So  are  the  mental  processes  of  every  forty- 
nine  out  of  fifty  the  Avorld  over.  AVe  never  can  know  anything 
without  having  something  to  know  it  with.  A  'like'  is  the 
key  that  enables  us  to  unlock,  and  to  enter,  the  door  of  the 
unknown."  (3)  Us  Side  TAglits,  or  environment,  so  to 
speak. 

The  Main  Story  corresponds  to  the  outline  of  a  picture, 
the  skeleton;  the  side  lights  to  the  finished  background,  the 
filled-in  atmosphere.  It  has  been  claimed  by  some  educators 
tliat  the  wood  engraving  or  line-cut  picture,  being  outline 
and  sketcliy,  appeals  more  to  tlie  smaller  child,  while  the 
half-tone  does  to  tlie  older  pupil.  This  does  not  at  all  fol- 
low from  a  study  of  child-nature.  Granted  that  the  small 
child  does  draw  at  first  only  in  outline;  granted,  also,  that 
he  is  highly  imaginative  and  symbolic,  and  that  he  reads 
more  into  that  outline  sketch  than  do  we  adults,  yet  the  small 
child  does  not  draw  in  outline  because  lie  u-ants  to,  but 
because  lie  lias  to.  The  grosser  and  larger  nuiscular  move- 
ments are  developed  first,  then  the  more  delicate  and  highly- 
specialized  ones.  The  child  does  not  talk  "baby-talk"  because 
he  wants  to,  but  because  his  tongue  cannot  yet  imitate  accu- 
rately the  more  delicate  sounds  in  specialized  muscular 
action.  You  do  not  help  him  to  get  nearer  the  right  pro- 
nunciation by  talking  "baby-talk"  back  to  him.  He  will 
realize  his  imitative  struggles  all  the  sooner  by  hearing  the 
right  syllabization.     So  with  stories  and  pictures;  the  full 


220  THE  EJ.KMKNTS  OF   CHIIJ)   STUDY 

and  iiatuval  jxji'trayal.  the  pit'tuiv  as  Xatuic  |>rt'si'nt.s  it, 
witli  all  its  baokgniimd.  and  liiihls  and  shadows,  is  the  nioiv 
correct  mode  of  ]>roscntati()n. 

The  Marks  of  a  Good  Story. 

"(1)  The  stonj  ntiisl  have  a  bcgiitniiKj.  runrrcte,  iiilcr- 
esl-compelling ,  curiositij-puiaing.  'All  things  have  two 
liandles:  beware  of  the  wrong  one."  {'i)  It  uiusi  liave  a 
cliiiKix,  properl}'  led  up  to,  easily  led  down  from;  and  that 
never  missed.  (3)  Many  good  sioric^  hare  rhijUnn.  recui-- 
rence,  repetition  of  the  leit  iiiolir.  "The  'i'hree  Bears'  is  a 
favorite  for  this  reason,  among  others,  'i'he  commands  of 
the  Lord  to  Moses  were  regularly  rej)i'ated  thrice  in  tiie 
Bible  story:  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  tiie  sonorous  catalogue  of 
flute,  harp,  sackbnt,  and  the  rest,  comes  in  none  too  often  for 
the  purposes  of  the  story-teller.  (4)  All  good  stories  have 
unity;  parts  well  subordinated:  tiie  nuiin  lesson  unmis- 
takably clear;  the  point,  whether  tactfully  liidden  or  l)rought 
out  by  skilful  questions,  never  missed."  Dr.  Hoads  puts  it 
another  way:  "(1)  The  Illustration  must  l)e  transparent, 
and  not  in  itself  so  attractive  as  to  fix  the  attention.  (2) 
Yet  it  should  be  so  interesting  as  to  give  the  ti'utli  a  fresh 
setting.  (3)  The  Illustration  is  foi-  the  Trutli.  not  the 
Truth  for  the  Illustration." 

Points  to  be  Remembered  in  Story  Telling. 

Says  Dr.  Hervey  again:  "(1)  Use  dirccl  i/isconrsc  That 
is,  have  the  story  vivid,  put,  so  far  as  may  l)e,  in  running, 
personal,  descriptive  form,  leaving  out  the  tliii'd  person. 
It  will  require  an  effort  to  keep  yourself  (in  your  end)ar- 
rassment)  from  taking  refuge  behind  ihe  indirect  form, 
saying,  for  example  'And  when  he  came  to  himself,  he  said 
that  he  would  rise  and  go  to  his  father,  and  tell  him  that  he 
had  sinned.'  (2)  Choose  actions,  rather  than  descriptions, 
the   dvnamics.    rathei-   than    Ihe    statics,    of   your   subjects — 


now  TO   USE  STORIES  AXU  ILLUSTRATIONS  227 

your  story  will  tlius  have  'i^'o,"  as  all  BiMe  stories  have.  Those 
of  us  who  have  grown  away  from  childhood  tend  to  reverse 
the  true  order,  to  place  the  emphasis  on  the  question,  'What 
kind  of  a  man  is  he,'  and  not  on,  Svliat  did  he  do?'  J^et 
what  lie  did  tell  what  he  was."  (3)  Use  concrete  ieniis,  not 
abstract:  tell  what  was  done,  not  how  somehody  felt,  or 
thought,  when  something  was  done ;  he  ohjective,  not  sub- 
jective, (-i)  A  stonj-teJler  should  have  taste.  To  form  this 
taste  it  is  indispensable  that  he  should  not  merely  read,  but 
drink  in  the  great  masters :  Homer,  Chaucer,  Bunyan,  Haw- 
thorne, (The  Woxder  Book,  for  example),  and,  above  all, 
the  Bible  itself.  Xo  one  can  absorb  these  without  uncon- 
sciousl}'  forming  a  pure,  simple  style,  and  getting  a  more 
childlike  point  of  view  and  way  of  speech.  Modern  writers 
and  modern  ways  of  thinking  are,  in  general,  too  i-etlective, 
self-conscious,  subjective,  and,  where  children  are  concerned, 
too  direct,  bare,  "preachy."  (5)  The  secret  of  sionj-teHing 
lies — first  of  all,  in  being  fall — fall  of  the  ston/.  the  picture, 
the  children;  and  then  in  being  morally  and  spiritually  up 
to  concert-pitch,  which  is  the  true  source  of  power  in  any- 
thing. From  these  comes  spontaneity  ;  what  is  within  must 
come  out;  the  story  tells  itself:  and  of  your  fulness  the 
children  all  receive.  Dr.  l^oads  enlarges:  "Be  spiritually- 
minded  always,  and  deepen  the  spiritual  life,  so  that  spiritual 
analogies  and  truths  may  be  seen  in  all  that  is  seen,  or  read, 
or  experienced.  The  teacher  must  have  a  clear  understanding 
of  the  truth  he  would  illustrate.  He  cannot  show  what  he 
does  not  see.'' 
Brief  Rules. 

Finally  Di-.  Hervey  sums  uj)  his  suggestions  as  to  the 
story:  "(1)  See  it.  If  you  are  to  nuike  others  see  ii,  you 
must  see  it  yourself.  (2)  Feel  il.  H'  it  is  to  touch  your 
class,  it  must  first  have  touched  you.  (3)  Shorten  it.  It 
is   |)rol)altlv    too   long,      l»revity    is   llie   soul    of   story-telliug. 


228  THE  ELKMKNTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

(-4)  Expand  il.  It  is  probably  meagre  in  necessary  back- 
ground, in  details,  (o)  Master  il.  Practise,  l^epetition  is 
the  mother  of  stories  ■well  told  ;  readiness,  tlie  secret  of  classes 
well  held.  ((!)  liepcai  il.  Don't  be  afraid  of  re-telling  a 
good  story.  The  younger  cliildreii  are,  the  better  they  like 
old  friends.  But  everyone  loves  a  'twice-told  talc'  "'  ]Ie 
adds:  "The  'wholes'  of  Scri])ture  narrative,  whole  books, 
wliolc  lives,  whole  stories,  told  as  wholes  by  the  teacher,  or 
by  a  single  ])uj)il,  and  not  })ick('(l  out  })ieceuieal  by  the 
teaclier  from  halting  individuals — tiiese  are  tiie  things  that 
in  the  class  give  interest,  and  that  in  the  mind  live,  and  grow, 
and  bear  fruit.  'Moral  power  is  the  effect  of  large,  unbroken 
masses  of  thouglit;  in  these  alone  can  a  strong  interest  be 
developed/  and  from  these  alone  can  a  steady  will  spring." 

How  to  Learn  How. 

Hervey,  Holmes,  Koads,  Gregory — everyone  who  has  writ- 
ten on  Teaching — add  suggestions  on  cultivating  this  Art 
of  Illustration;  for  it  is  an  art,  one  of  the  greatest  arts. 
Ijike  every  other  art,  it  demands  study  (incessant  study), 
and — practice.     Here  is  the  gist. 

Study  Models.  As  in  all  imitative  arts,  we  learn  best 
by  noting  how  others  acted  and  spoke,  (a)  Ancient  models. 
Socrates,  a  master  in  the  art.  Christ,  the  most  ideal  Story- 
teller. Read  His  Parables,  without  a  word  of  alteration  or 
enlargement,  and  you  have  the  most  attractive  stories.  If 
you  ever  tell  the  like,  you  may  be  Avell  satisfied.  The  Art 
of  Illustration  reached  perfection  in  Him.  Read  the  dis- 
courses of  Jesus,  and  see  what  wealth  of  illustration  is  in 
them. 

(h)  Modern.  Read  Spurgeon,  especially  John  Plough- 
man's Talks.  They  are  homely,  terse,  rugged,  telling. 
I»ead  Moody,  whose  Bible  stories  are  marvellous.  As  he 
])ut   it,   he   "simply  took   the   old,   dead   skeletons,   and   put 


HOW  TO  USE  STORIES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS  229 

living  flesh  on  tlioir  bones,  and  made  them  walk  among  us." 
Eveiy  teacher  should  own  and  read  one  volume  of  Moody. 
In  English  literature,  study  Chaucer.  Mark  how  he  made 
such  a  picture  of  his  Canterbury  pilgrims  that,  not  only  the 
color,  the  action,  and  the  characters  of  the  scene,  but  also 
the  very  atmosphere  of  the  jolly  crowd,  has  been  clear  and 
vivid  for  more  than  four  centuries.  Macauley  boasted  that 
he  would  write  a  history  which  would  supersede  the  latest 
novel  on  the  tables  of  the  young  ladies  of  the  day.  How 
did  he  accomplish  tliis?  Eead  his  History  op  England, 
and  learn  the  secret  of  the  power  to  picture.  Another 
modern  writer,  who  should  be-  commended  for  her  exquisite 
style,  and  brilliant  picturing — although  we  may  not  always 
agree  with  what  she  says — is  Marie  Corelli.  Study  George 
Eliot's  Silas  Marnek,  'Vhere  the  interest  never  flags,  the 
proper  perspective  is  always  maintained,  light  and  shade 
are  in  due  proportion,  and  the  lesson  to  be  learned  is  taken, 
not  as  a  bitter  dose,  but  as  one  drinks  in  the  fresh  air  of 
a  clear,  May  morning."  Study  it,  and  learn  how  to  tell  a 
story.  Hawthorne's  Wonder  Book  is  another  picturesque 
model.  Beware  of  most  present-day  writers,  for  the  gener- 
ality of  them  are  too  reflective,  self-conscious,  suljjective; 
and,  Avhere  children  are  concerned,  too  direct  and  bare. 

3.  Prepare  Carefully.  It  is  easier — at  least  it  is 
lazier — to  provide  many  things,  than  to  prepare  much. 

The  mind  uses,  by  preference,  its  most  familiar  know- 
ledge. Each  man  borrows  his  illustrations  from  his  calling; 
the  soldier  from  the  camps;  the  sailor  from  tlie  ships,  etc. 
So  in  the  ol)jects  of  study,  each  student  is  attracted  to  the 
qualities  which  relate  it  to  his  business,  or  experience. 
Therefore,  try  to  keep  well  within  tlie  range  of  your  pupils' 
plane  of  experience  in  selecting  your  story,  or  illustration, 
and  in  building  it  out. 

Old  Testament  Stories  and  Life  seem  somewhat  nearer 


230  THE  ELE^fEXTS  OK  CiillJ)   STri)Y 

to  eliildreii  than  Xew  Testament,  and,  espeeially,  than  the 
History  of  Acts.  It  is  the  reason  why,  so  many  prefer  to 
give  but  a  simple  and  brief  outline  of  Christ,  and  His  Life. 
and  then  to  take  nj)  the  Old  Testament  biographically,  not 
historically,  Avhieli  would  coiiie  much  later,  after  historical 
concepts  have  arisen. 

Varieties  of  Illustrative  Material. 

1.  Objects  of  Nature.  Find  where  the  sun,  moon,  stars, 
grass,  birds,  etc.,  are  used  in  the  Bible,  and  compare  with 
modern  things.  Use  the  wonders  of  American  Xatural  Lil'c 
and  Scenery  in  a  similai'  way.  'I'hc  coumion  objects  ol' 
to-day,  in  our  American  A\!()nderiand,  will  sj)eak  just  as 
powerfully  as  Palestine  did  under  Christ's  uuignetic  hand. 

2.  Ifuiiiaii  Actlritics  and  Orcajxilioits  around  us,  of  the 
kind  the  child  can  appreciate.  We  live  in  the  most  magnifi- 
cent scientific  age  known.  Use  it  to  help  on  Christ's  King- 
dom. Not  onh'  great  Iniildings  operations,  tremendous 
works,  great  ships,  l)ut  the  marvels  of  science  and  discovery 
are  at  our  back. 

o.  Aiiccddios,  Stories  (Parables  I'l'om  l)il)U'.  early  Eng- 
lisli  Writers,  etc.).  Biographies  from  jModern  and  Present-day 
History,  American  and  European  History,  Classical  j\Iytho- 
logy.  Old  Legends  (See  Gould's  I.kohnos  ok  tiiI':  Pathi- 
AHCiis  AM)  Pi!oriii<:'rs,  Miller's  (ii.i.M  I'sks  Tiii;()i(;ii  EiKifs 
Windows,  Stall's  Eivk-^Fim  tk  Oi-.-ii-ct  Si;i!M()\s:  Miss 
Yonge's  Book  ok  (ioi.DKX  Dkkds.  etc.)  Allegories,  Similes, 
and,  la.stly.  Illustrations  IVom  vivid  preacbei-s ;  I'oi'  lliey  puli- 
lished  their  sci'mons  to  li('l|)  s])i-en(l  the  Ti'uth.  nol  to  remain 
on  shelves. 

■1.  K.vj)ressire  l^i/iiihols.  Ti//ies.  etc..  as  the  ('ross.  the 
Anchor,   Crown,   XP,  dES,  'I'riangle,  etc. 

.").  Carreiil  Aner(l(jles.  Study  the  cui'rent  newspapers 
and  magazines.     IMuch  that  is  suggestive  and  inipr(>ssive  will 


now  TO  rSK  SIOKIIIS  .wd  illistrations  2:u 

foiue  ti)  Jiaud.  Many  a  talc  of  local  biaverv.  .self-dcnial. 
self-sacriHcc  ol'  toiii forts,  or  lilV,  (k'votioii  to  duty,  to  religion. 
to  God,  to  ^lissions,  etc.,  will  be  round  in  almost  every  issue 
of  a  paper,  or  magazine.  If  the  cliildrcu  know  the  people, 
or  the  locality  of  the  event,  it  will  win  personal  interest. 
The  story  can  be  briefly  and  \i\i(lly  recast  in  your  own 
language,  for  presentation  and  elucidation  of  the  lesson. 
To  preserve  this  material  until  needed,  that  is,  until  it  natur- 
ally suits  the.  lesson  at  hand,  begin  an  p]nvelope  Filing 
System.* 

G.  Sketches,  illustrative  of  Pictures,  .Models,  Scenes. 
Symbols,  etc.,  made  hy  teacher  or  scholars. 

T.  h'eligious  Art,  es2:)ecially  Religious  Pictures,  is  dealt 
with  very  fully  in  a  special  Book  on  Eeligious  Pictures,  Ijy 
the  same  Author.  It  is  hoth  a  matter  of  telling  interest. 
and  of  vital  importance,  to  secure  the  right  point  of  view 
toward  the  cultivation  of  this  artistic  instinct. 

Types  of  pictures  and  their  selection  are  of  supreme 
import;  for  one  of  the  greatest  mistakes  we  can  make  is  to 
select  pictures,  ill-adapted  to  particular  ages.  Some  selec- 
tions are  positively  harmful  and  injurious.  This  is  not  the 
fault  of  the  pictures,  hut  their  abuse,  their  itse  at  tiie  wrong 


*  (jet  cheap  iiiaiiilhi  envelopes,  tuck  in  the  flaps  (or  cut  them  ofT 
entirely),  writing  the  general  topics  you  will  need  on  the  upper 
left-hand  corner,  and  file  in  a  box  or  drawer  (the  box  in  which  the 
envelopes  were  bought  will  do  if  you  strengthen  the  corners  with 
cloth,  gummed  tape).  Into  these  envelopes  put  all  clippings  you  can 
secure,  of  suggestive  use.  Copy  mottoes,  ]iassages,  stories,  etc..  where 
you  cannot  clip,  and  file  the  memos  in  the  same  way.  If  the  system 
grows  very  large,  special  envelopes  can  be  made  of  heavy  inanila,  and 
the  whole  filed  in  ordinary  chiffonier  drawers,  three  rows  to  a 
drawer.  Tliis  plan  is  far  better  than  a  clipping  book,  for  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  find  sucli  material  at  once  when  wanted,  without  an  index, 
which  means  excessive  work.  By  this  suggested  system,  the  en- 
velopes are  their  own  index,  being  arranged  in  order,  as  in  a  dic- 
tionary, or  encjclopaedia. 


232  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILI)  STUDY 

age,  or  tiiiu'.  Pictures  that  arc  concrete  are  in  themselves 
better  for  children  than  those  which  are  mystical,  or  abstract. 
Pictures  that  show  actions,  even  in  war  and  killing,  are 
attractive  to  small  children,  because  of  their  action.  It  has 
been  shown  that  such  pictures  do  not  work  injury  to  the 
child,  for  it  is  not  the  pain,  or  the  killing,  that  he  cares  for. 
or  even  realizes,  but  the  vividness  of  action  and  doing. 
Pictures  of  God's  Love  and  Care,  of  Jesus  Blessing  Children, 
or  Healing  the  Sick,  of  the  Nativity  and  Childhood,  of 
Country  Life  in  Egypt  and  Palestine — all  these  appeal  to 
the  younger  children. 

Most  of  the  Italian  Masters'  pictures  are  formal  works 
of  art,  but  with  no  appropriate  religious  content  for  us,  as 
far  removed  from  our  conception  of  everyday  life  as  a  Latin 
Bible  would  be  for  a  text  book;  and  the  German  pictures, 
a  principal  alternative,  for  the  most  part  entirely  lack  tiiat 
artistic  fire  which  gives  woj'ks  of  art  their  reason  for 
existence. 

Graded  Stereoscopic  Work. 

In  even  the  humblest  Sunday  School,  the  stereoscope 
and  stereographs  are  to-day  hecoming  an  almost  indispensable 
adjunct.  The  subjects  involved  arc  principally  scenes  from 
the  Holy  Land,  its  people,  places,  and  customs.  Neverthe- 
less, there  ought  to  be  grading  in  their  use,  a  se(|uencc  or 
order,  by  which  the  pupils  are  conducted  in  a  systematic. 
rather  than  a  haphazard,  fashion  through  the  land  that  Jesus 
trod. 

Manual  Work. 

"Manual  Work"  means,  of  course,  anything  done  with 
the  hands.  In  this  broad  usage  the  term  includes  all  written 
and  illustrative  work.  Technically,  liowever,  it  is  generally 
confined  to-day  to  the  following  Types  of  Work,  which  are 
brief!  V   summarized   and   described   below.     All    are   used   at 


now  TO   USK  STORIES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS  2;}3 

tlie  same  time,  syiiclironous,  not  consecutive.  For  older 
scholars  of  the  Adolescent  Age,  boys  and  girls  alike,  there  is 
nothing  that  "takes"  so  well  as  tlie  advanced  forms  of  ]\Ianual 
V/ork,  especially  Note  Books  and  IMaps.  The  fatal  ''leak  at 
the  top"  is  almost  overcome  by  its  proper  use.  The  general 
divisions  are : 

I.  Illustrated  Book  Work. 

II.  ]\rap-Making  in  Belief. 

III.  Map-Making  in  the  Flat. 

IV.  Modelic-Work. 

I. — Illustrated    Book  Work. 

It  was  formerly  thought  that,  since  small  children  were 
fond  of  pictures,  Bible  Pictures  were  only  of  use  in  the 
lower  grades  of  the  Sunday  School.  For  many  years  their 
use  has  been  confined  to  a  topical  illustration  of  some  Bible 
Story,  or  Ethical  Lesson.  To-day  it  is  being  realized  that 
this  is  a  very  small  field,  and  that  their  power  is,  perhaps, 
greatest  as  a  means  of  self-expression  in  the  higher  grades. 

Even  in  adult  reading  of  current  literature  it  is  note- 
worthy that  illustrations  and  pictures  are  the  chief  means 
used  to  impart  ideas  and  descriptions.  People  look  at  the 
pictures  in  current  literature,  and  scarcely  do  more  at  best 
than  glance  rapidly  over  the  reading  matter.  A  picture 
will  convey  in  a  comprehensive,  vivid,  picturesque  instant 
a  grasp  and  detail  in  any  subject  that  it  would  require  pages 
of  print  to  explain.  Moreover,  we  aie  of  a  concrete,  rather 
than  abstract  or  abstruse,  type  of  mind  in  this  age.  The  eye- 
gate  appeals  to  our  understanding  far  better  than  the  ear- 
gate,  and  the  picture  eye-gate  best  of  all.  Thinking  of  a 
historical  scene  or  object  requires  visualizing.  If  we  have 
only  a  literary  descri])tion,  the  process  of  visualizing  is  most 
complex,  though  not  so  dilTicult  perhaps  as  with  a  verbal 
description.     A  picture  visualizes  at  once — gives  it  all  in  a 


•234  TIIK  KIJvMKXTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

flash,  as  it  wcic.  I'ictiu'fs  ;iic  (hus  of  xaliit'  in  r\i'i'y  stage  oi" 
education,  with  the  adult  I'lillv  as  nuicli  as  witli  the  youngest 
child. 

In  all  ('(liicalion  of  the  modem  tvpe,  it  is  recognized  to- 
day, that  "means  of  self-expression"  are  necessary.  The 
student,  youn^-  or  ohi.  must  do  in  order  to  understand.  The 
object  must  ]>reee(le  the  symbol.  The  concrete  must  antici- 
pate the  abstract.  True  education  says  that  doing  must 
come  before  learning;  that  we  understand  l)y  our  recon- 
structing, or  at  least  I'epresenting,  wluit  we  are  to  learn  by 
nde  and  principle  later.  Education  thus,  secidai-  and  I'elig- 
ious  alike,  is  ineeting  in  scll'-expi'ession  the  wants,  and  crav- 
ing, and  desires,  of  the  pupil. 

Some  of  such  "Means  of  Self-Expression""  are,  Represent- 
ing the  Subject  by  the  Use  of  Pictures,  by  l)i-a\\  ing.  by  .Maps 
(relief,  putty,  clay,  plasticine,  pa]H'r-j)ulp,  ink,  erayon.  waU'r 
colors,  and  even  pyrography).  Written  Description  of  the 
Subject-matter  in  the  form  of  Notes  or  Essays,  l)y  Construct- 
ing 01)jects  or  ^lodels,  ])y  Ikcproducing  Bible  Seem 
simple  Plays  and  J)ramatization,  etc.  It  is  importaid. 
wise,  that  Exi)ression  ot  Christian  Teacliing  and  Alti'uistic 
Principles  be  given  actually  in  suggested  works  of  charily 
and  kindness,  in  practically  living  the  lift'  foi'  which  the 
principles  and  teaching  stand. 

Grade  J.  Piciurcs  in  lite  Kiii(l('r;/(irlcii  (iml  rrliuanj 
Schools.  Picture  ]\I(mnting  Books  (X.  ^■.  Sunday  School 
Commission),  in  which  piclures  of  the  lialf-iaMit  or  penny 
series  ai'c  pasted  in  with  Dennison  stickers,  to  illustrate  a 
to])ical  lesson. 

(Inn/r  If.  I'vpUs  from  S  /o  !l.  ur  10  l<>  11.  Old  llihirs 
or  Teslamenls  are  clipped.  nniL-in;/  a  hariiioiii/  of  the  Old 
Tcslaiiieiif.  or  life  of  Clirisl.  or  .\posiolic  CJiurch.  Clippings, 
and  pictures  to  illustrate  them,  aie  mounted  in  Picture 
Moiintiu"-    i>ooks.   and    a    l*ictui-c    lliMc    llui<    fdrmeil    li\-   each 


in 
ike- 


now     lO   ISI-:   STOKIKS  and  ILIASTRATIONS  235 

child.  CliildrL'ii  oJ'  this  grade  (.-an  ol'lcii  (h»  this  work,  wIkmi 
thcii'  wi-itiiig  is  still  too  labored  and  i-iudc  i'(jr  written 
elaboration.  Jievereiu-e  is  taught  by  earel'iilly  burning  waste 
portions  of  the  old,  used  Bibles.  Sometimes  the  book  covers 
are  beautifully   ilhiniinated. 

Grade  III.  Fictures  are  nioaiited  in  hools  in  historica! 
sequence  as  before,  and  a  brief  description  icrilten  beside 
them,  or  on  the  ojjposite  page,  in  addition  to  the  study  given 
to  the  lesson  in  connection  with  the  Lesson  Manual.  There 
are  two  types  of  children,  one  the  mental  type,  the  other  the 
manual  type.  The  lattei-  ty]K\  is  the  "bad"  boy  or  giid. 
Keali/ce  that  Ijadness  is  often  extreme  nervousness  and  activity, 
and  will  disappear  at  once  with  the  use  of  Manual  ^Methods, 
self-expression,  such  as  are  supplied  by  this  notebook  work. 
This  is  successfully  done  with  pupils  from  10  to  V2  or  lo 
years  of  age. 

Grade  lY.  Fictures  and  Mounting  Fioolcs.  as  aboce.  irilli 
inucli  longer  essays  or  fuller  notes  or  long  tlieses,  forming 
an  original  biography,  or  history,  of  tlic  subject  studied. 
Drawings,  maps,  etc.,  are  added,  and  often  quite  elaborate 
books  prepared,  reaching  up  to  adult  life  and  Bible  Classes. 
This  work  begins  at  Adolescence,  12  years  onwards. 

Thus  we  cover  all  the  divisions  of  the  Sunday  School,  in 
a  graded  picture  notebook  scheme. 

Kindergarten  and  Primary  in  Grade  I. 

Grammar  School  in  Grades  II.  and  II T. 

High  School  and  Post-Graduate  School  in  Grade   1\'. 

II. — Map-Making   in    Relief. 

{a)  The  Klenim  Belief  Maps  of  Egypt,  Palestine,  and 
Eoman  Empire,  may  be  colored  with  water  or  oil  colors. 
(b)  The  Sand  Table  Map  may  be  used  in  all  grades.  Even 
adidts  delight  in  it.  The  best  proportions  are  three  units 
one  \\i)\-  hv  four  the  other.     While  I'ockawav  or  I'iver  Bottom 


23G  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Sand,  or  groimd  Glass  Quartz,  arc  the  best  materials,  (c) 
Paper  Pulp  (white  or  olive  green),  clay,  or  even  putty,  can 
be  moulded.  For  the  use  of  the  I'ulp,  see  the  Commission 
Bulletin,  Vols.  II.  and  III.  (25  cents  a  volume)  or  INIr.  Little- 
field's  Hand  Work.  Clay  and  Putty  do  not  dry  well.  They 
are  used  on  glass,  or  the  Ixiavd  may  he  painted.  I'ldp  is  ihc 
best,  though  flour  and  salt  ai'c  used.  The  ^laps  arc  maih'  in 
Map-Boards  and,  when  dry,  are  pried  oil'  with  a  broad  kuil'e. 
and  pasted  on  cardboard.  They  may  be  colored  as  desired 
with  oil  colors,  water  colors  (Diamond  Easter  Egg  Dyes,  or 
Japanese  WatSr  Colors  on  cards). 

Another  excellent  material  is  Plasticine,  a  kindergarten 
clay  that  comes  in  colors.  The  maps  are  made  during  two  or 
three  Sunday  School  Sessions,  in  a  separate  room,  uiuler  a 
special  teacher,  who  takes  the  regular  teacher  and  the  jnipils 
apart  for  this  work;  or  they  may  be  done  outside  of  school 
hours,  some  afternoon  or  evening,  as  arranged,  ^[iich  time 
is  saved,  as  the  Bible  Events  and  History  are  clinched  readily 
by  these  maps,  and  Bible  Geography  becomes  a  matter  of  cer- 
tain visualizing,  not  of  dead  rote  memory,  to  say  nothing  of 
vital  interest.  A  good  "key"  for  the  dimensions  and  rela- 
tions of  Palestine  is  given  in  Sexton's  Manual  Woijk. 

The  only  Maps  needed  in  the  Avhole  course  are:  1.  In  Old 
Testament  History,  Palestine,  some  colored  for  Pre-b].\odus 
and  some  for  the  Conquest,  Solomon's  Kingdom,  and  Sul)se- 
quent  Fortunes  of  Israel  and  Ju(hdi ;  Egypt  and  Sinai,  for 
the  Exodus;  Mesopotamia,  for  the  Exiles.  3.  In  the  Life 
of  Christ,  Palestine,  with  A'ew  ^I'cstamcnt  Divisions,  and 
Galilee,  showing  Esdraelon,  for  the  (ialilean  ]\finistry,  which 
requires  more  space  to  outline  it.  ;}.  In  the  Early  Christian 
Cluirch,  Poman  Em])ire  only,  for  St.  Paul's  Journeys.  Only 
six  inaps  in  all  are  essential. 


U0\^^  'J'O  USE  STOlllKS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS  237 

\\\. — Map-Making  in  the  Flat. 

The  Historical  Maps  of  the  Jiittlolield,  Bailey,  Biakeslec, 
Harrison,  McKinley,  and  Hodge  tSerics  "jover  every  possible 
style,  price,  size,  and  subject  desired.  Tliey  range  from  45 
cents  a  hundred,  to  10  cents  apiece.  Hi  general,  we  would 
recommend  the  following  use,  running  parallel  with  the  Ke- 
lief  Maps.  Use  them  in  prolusion,  letting  every  pupil  have 
them,  with  water  or  oil  colors. 

(a)  For  Old  Testament  History,  get  the  full  set  of  Little- 
field  Maps  for  coloring  witli  crayons.  There  are  fifteen  in 
the  set  in  all.  The  several  Bailey  Maps,  especially  the  Key 
Maps,  are  valuable  for  rapid  line  making,  and  for  Eeviews 
and  "Tests." 

(6)  For  the  Life  of  Christ,  use  the  Littlefield  Map,  for 
it  gives  Palestine  in  larger  form;  use  Bailey  Esdraelon  for 
Galilean  Ministry,  use  Bailey  Key  Map  for  places. 

(c)  For  the  Apostolic  Church,  use  the  Littlefield  Map 
for  Early  Apostolic  Journeys,  use  Bailey  Eoman  World,  and 
Key  Map  of  Eoman  World  for  St.  Paul's  Journeys.  Note 
carefully  that  no  map  work  should  be  begun  before  the  age 

of  TEN   or  ELEVEN. 
IV.— Modelic  Work. 

Models  are  essential  to  a  clear  understanding  to-day. 
They  have  long  been  seen  in  the  Hay  School.  They  are 
rapidly  coming  into  the  Sunday  School.  Hundreds  of  dollars 
are  being  spent  in  their  manufacture.  Every  good  Sunday 
School  is  putting  in  a  Museum.  The  list  is  constantly  being 
enlarged.  Note  carefully  that  some  models  can  be  used  at 
all  ages,  some  only  after  "Historic  Perception"  has  developed. 
Those  usable  before  ten  are  the  Houses,  Tent,  Sheepfold, 
Scroll,  Well,  Water  Jar,  Lamp,  Tomb,  and  Water  Bottle. 
All  these,  and  the  others,  can  be  used  for  all  ages  above  ten. 
Some  of  them  combine  splendidly  with  the  Sand  Table. 
Under  Models,  would  also  come  the  Flowers  of  Palestine, 


238  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHII.I)   STIDV 

and    stereoscopic    Pictures,    coiuiuoiily    called    Stereograpiis. 
Avliicli  portray  real  scenes  in  the  three  dimensions. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION. 

1.  Wliy  do   Stories  and   J llustrat ions  aiipcal    |);uiicularly   to    I'larly 

C'hildliood? 

2.  To  wliat  powers  and  organs  docs   I llust ration  apix-ai? 
."].    W'liat  are  the  dangers  in  the  use  of  Illustration? 

4.  What  are  the  Characteristics  of  good  Illustrations? 

5.  What  are  the  Marks  of  a  good  Story  ? 

(i.    What  points  should  be  remembered  in  Story-telling? 

7.  State  Dr.  Hervey's  Brief  Rules. 

8.  How  can  you  learn  how  to  illustrate? 

!).  What  Illustrative  ^laterials  are  at  your  command? 

Itt.  What  can  you  say  as  to  Types  of  Religious  Pictures? 

11.  Distinguish  between  the  use  of  Imaginary  and  Real  Pictures. 

12.  Give  the  outlines  and  grades  of  Manual  Work. 


SYLLABUS  OF  CHAPTER   XV. 
CLINCHING  OUR  TEACHING  FOR  PERMANENT   RESULTS 

SUGGESTED  READING:  — 

How  TO  Strexgtiiex  the  MEiroRV,  Holbrook. 

Charactek-Buildi.ng,  Colcr. 

Making  of  Character,  .MncVuiiii. 

Child  Nature  and  Child  Nurture,  .S7.  John. 

SUMMARY. 

Teaching  useless  without  a  ilemory  to  retain  it. 

Teaching  useless  without  Habit  and  Action,  i.e.  Character,  resulting 
from  jMemory. 

Habit  is  the  result  of  Definite  Willing. 

Memory-training  depends,  in  mode  of  production,  upon  whether  we 
desire  to  gain  Verbal  or  Visual  ]\Iemorj';  Abstract  or  Concrete. 

Laws  of  ilemory:  (1)  Absolute  Faith  in  it:  (2)  A  Powerful  First 
Impression;  (.3)  Personal  Interest:  (4)  Manifold  Associations: 
(5)  Repetition,  with  a  Diflerence;   (G)  Tlioroughness  and  System. 

How  to  ]\remorize.  Verbal  ;^^emory.  (1)  Bright,  fresh  Mind:  (2) 
Analyze  Material:  (3)  Learn  in  Connected  Clauses:  (4)  Recall 
by  Summons  from  Within,  not  by  looking  at  Book. 

Reasoning.  Is  merely  deliberately  Willing  to  face  and  look  at 
Facts,  weigh  one  group  against  anotlier.  look  at  each  side  fairly. 

I'se  of  Types.  Saves  time,  and  gives  ch'arer  mental  impressions  with 
less  mental  energy  expended. 

Forgetting.  Never  forget  entirely.  Our  I'.rains  and  Cliaracters  are 
certainly  altered  by  every   Impression,  even  seeminyh/  forgotten. 

Verbal  Memoriter  Work  to  be  used  only  for  (1)  Rules  and  Formulfp: 
(2)  Specially  worthy  Gems — Proverbs,  Sayings,  ilottoes, 
Poetrv.  etc. 


240  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Written  Answer  Work  needed  in  Lessons  ( 1 )  To  Assure  Home 
Study:  (2)  To  force  Child  to  Formulate  his  own  Answer;  (3)  To 
make  him  think  over  it,  shorten  it,  etc.,  for  the  purposely  small 
blank  spaces  left;  (4)  Written  Answer  stands  out  like  Italic 
type,  and  so  is  visualized  the  more;  (5)  Gain  is  made  also  by 
Muscle  Memory. 

Question-and-Answer  Books  are  totally  condemned  by  all  live  Edu- 
cators. 

The  Church  Catechism,  however,  can  well  be  taught  memoriter,  and 
developed  by  the  Inductive  Method. 

Habit.  All  Impressions,  even  Sub-Conscious,  influence  Habit  and 
Character  in  some  way,  at  some  time. 

Habit-formation  is  highly  specialized.  Cannot  train  Habits  in  gen- 
eral; but  only  each  particular  Habit. 

Rules  for  Habit-forming.  (1)  Strong  Initiative;  (2)  Allow  no  Ex- 
ceptions; (3)  Act  on  New  Resolution;  (4)  The  Strokes  of  Be- 
havior give  the  new  "Set"  to  Character. 

Moral  Training.  ( 1 )  Repress,  or  Train,  Harmful  Instincts ;  ( 2 )  De- 
velop Good  ones. 

Cultivation  of  Doing  and  Habits.  ( 1 )  Mere  Manual  Activity ;  ( 2 ) 
Personal  Habits;  (3)  Moral  or  Ethical  Habits;  (4)  Duties 
to  God. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

CLINCHING  OUR  TEACHING  FOR  PERMANENT  RESULTS 

The  Training  of  Memory,  Habits,  and  Will. 

There  would  bo  little  use  in  teaching,  unless  it  left  a  store 
of  interwoven,  related  knowledge,  as  an  impress  upon  life  and 
character.  It  is  essential,  therefore,  that,  in  the  preparation 
and  teaching  of  every  lesson  definite  regard  should  be  paid 
to  proper  Memory  Training. 

It  is  also  important,  since  Education  is  Cliaracter-build- 
ing,  and  since  character  is  but  the  acquirement  of  a  particu- 
lar bundle  of  habits,  for  us  to  realize  in  our  work,  that  the 
ultimate  aim  of  the  Clmrcli,  Sunday  School,  Eeligion,  and  the 
Public  School  is  really  Character,  or  Habit-forming. 

Action  and  Character  are,  in  general,  the  result  of  Habit; 
Habit  is  the  result  of  Attention  to  particular  and  definite 
Ideals  or  Ideas;  and  Voluntary  Attention  is  the  result  of 
definite  "Willing.  "Thus  your  pupils  will  be  saved,  first,  by 
the  stock  of  ideas  which  you  furnish  them;  secondly,  by  the 
amount  of  voluntary  attention  that  they  can  exert  in  holding 
to  the  right  ones,  however  unpalatable ;  and  thirdly,  by  the 
several  habits  of  acting  definitely  on  these  latter."  It  is  a 
definite,  deliberate,  clear-cut  programme,  therefore,  which  is 
set  before  the  Sunday  Teacher. 

Let  us  consider  it  in  detail. 
What  Kinds  of  Memory  are  Wanted? 

Is  it  a  memory  of  Words,  Verbal  Memory  (as  that  cul- 
tivated in  Memoriter  Work),  or  of  Things  and  Facts  (as  His- 


242  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

tor}-,  etc.).  Is  it  primarily  Coiurele  Meiiiori/.  aeeuratu  repro- 
ductions of  visual  images,  pictures,  sounds;  or  an  Abstract 
Memory,  such  as  holds  the  gist  and  general  meaning  of  what 
has  heen  taught,  and  can  reason  hottci-  about  the  facts  learned 
than  most  visualizing  memories?  llavi'  you  ever  noticed  that 
those  children  wlio  learn  to  retite  the  Catechism  most  ac- 
curately, are  least  able  to  explain  it,  and  that  the  other  class, 
who  stumble  over  it,  letting  slip  small  words,  can  cover  the 
sense  and  meaning  of  the  answers  with  far  more  under- 
standing than  do  the  former  group?  W'v  "do  not  have  mem- 
ory,'' says  James,  "Imt  memories":  and  you  must  bear  in 
mind  each  time  tlie  kind  you  are  seeking  to  cultivate. 
The  Laws  of   Memory.  ' 

Dr.  Koads  puts  them   in  popular  language. 

1.  Absolute  Faith  in  Mem  on/.  Do  not  depreciate  it,  as  so 
many  do,  simply  saying  that  they  have  a  i)oor  memory,  and 
that  there  is  no  use  in  trying  to  learn.  We  do  what  we  believe 
we  can  do.  All  ha\e  some  memoiT.  I'sc  what  you  have. 
Expect  memory  to  recall.  Demand  it.  Train  it.  Have 
patience  with  its  failures  and  weaknesses.  A  child  t-annot 
carry  a  strong  man's  load. 

'i.  A  First,  Poirerfnl  I  in  pression  Itetjis  to  iiiol-e  n  fact  or 
tlioiigltt  cling  to  the  meniori/.  (Jive  a  startling  efi'eet  at  first, 
vivid  impressions,  strong  emphasis,  clear  outlines  of  the  skele- 
ton. Do  not  surround  it  l)y  too  nuiny,  and  misleading,  and 
diverting,  side-lights.  Keep  to  the  sul)jcct,  and  do  not  wander 
off  in  digressions  and  discursions.  Strong  contrasts  of  one 
fact,  set  against  either  an  entirely  opposite  one,  or  a  similar 
one,  in  which  the  points  of  dissimilarity  are  emphasized,  will 
aid  in  tliis  impression. 

According  to  Thorndike:  ''As  a  rule,  it  is  more  econom- 
ical to  put  things  together  energetically,  than  to  put  them 
together  often;  close  attention  is  better  than  repetition.  The 
active  recall  of  a   fact  from  within  is,  as  a   rule,  better  than 


CLIXCHIXG   OUR  TEACHING  243 

its  impression  from  without;  for  recall  is  a  helpful  way  to  be 
sure  of  close  attention,  and  also  forms  the  connection  in  the 
way  in  which  it  will  later  be  required  to  act.  Furthermore, 
if  children  are  taught  to  memorize  by  recall,  tliey  are  saved 
from  wasting  time  in  reading  over  and  over,  or  studying  at 
length,  facts  which  they  have  already  committed  to  memory. 
In  memorizing  by  recall  one  not  only  knows  a  fact;  he  also 
knows  when  he  knows  it."' 

3.  Personal  Interest  in  the  learner.  We  reuiember  what 
we  have  interest  in.  Note  the  scores  carried  in  the  brain  of 
the  small  base-ballist ;  the  names  and  records  stored  by  the 
race-goer;  the  formulae  constantly  used  by  the  chemist,  and 
many  similar  instances.  Develop  curiosity,  and  so  interest 
in  the  truth ;  stir  up  motives  of  personal  regard  for  the  acqui- 
sition of  that  knowledge.  The  motives  that  help  to  hold  At- 
tention are  those  of  most  avail  in  ^Memory. 

■±.  Manifold  Associations.  All  educators  lay  particular 
stress  on  this,  for  it  is  the  scientific  basis  of  Memory.  We 
not  only  comprehend,  and  understand,  and  "assimilate,"  new 
truth  by  connecting  it  "apperceptively''  with  the  old  and 
familiar  truth;  but  we  remember  and  recall  it  in  the  same 
way.  Thus,  associating  the  fact  that  Palestine  is  about  the 
same  shape  as  New  Hampshire,  helps  us  to  remember  it,  for 
we  all  recall  New  Hampshire's  contour. 

]\rost  memory  devices  are  false,  cumbersome,'  extraneous 
and  complicated;  but  natural  association  is  demanded  for  all 
good  memory.  The  so-called  mnemonic  systems  are  wholly 
useless  and  artificial,  and  ultimately  involve  more  waste  of 
energy,  more  toil,  and  strain,  and  work,  than  straight  out-and- 
out  learning.  They  recommend  irrational  methods  of  think- 
ing, and  are  only  of  use  for  detached  facts,  not  otherwise 
easily  associated.  James  illustrates  by  the  use  of  the 
mnemonic  "Vibgyor""  to  recall  the  colors  of  the  spectrum. 


244  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

He  notes  the  consequent  injury  of  "cramming,"  which 
seeks  to  stamp  in  things  temporarily  hy  intense  application, 
with  few,  if  any,  associations  formed,  just  to  carry  one  over 
an  ordeal.  It  does  not  lead  to  the  results  desired  by  the  per- 
manent, retentive  memory.  If  it  did,  it  could  be  recom- 
mended as  a  labor-saving  plan.  The  same  facts  gone  over 
day  by  day,  slowly,  repeatedly  thought  about,  and  thus  assso- 
ciated  with  many  other  facts,  Avould  have  had  woven  around 
them  a  mass  of  friendly  associations,  any  one  of  which  would 
have  fixed  it  firmly  in  the  mind. 

5.  Bepeiiixon.  Mere  rote  repetition  will  not,  necessarily, 
aid  in  fixing  facts  in  memory.  It  should  be  slightly  varied 
to  secure  and  retain  high  interest,  and  then  each  repetition 
will  be  just  as  helpful  as  the  first  impression.  Again,  repeti- 
tions, conducted  not  all  at  once,  hut  at  separated  intervals, 
are  of  more  benefit  than  continuous  work. 

6.  Thorougliness  and  System.  The  habit  of  desultory 
novel-reading — reading  to  forget — is  one  of  the  injurious  and 
pernicious  habits  of  the  present  day.  It  ruins  good  memory. 
While  it  is  true  that  "the  secret  of  a  good  memory  lies  much 
in  what  we  learn  is  best  to  forget,"  because  we  cannot  carry 
everything  in  mind,  and  hence  should  discriminate;  yet,  the 
constant  reading  of  what  we  determinedly  do  not  intend  to 
remember,  is  destructive  of  good  memories.  The  Memoriter 
Work  assigned  in  various  Lesson  Systems,  is  not  to  be  neglect- 
ed, without  harm.  ]\Iuch  more  should  be  learned  than  is 
learned  to-day,  and  teachers  need  not  be  afraid  of  imposing 
too  hard  a  task  on  the  pupils. 

How  to  Memorize. 

Suppose  you,  or  your  scholars,  have  (1)  a  piece  of  Scrip- 
ture to  learn  by  heart,  or  (2)  General  Facts  of  a  Lesson  of 
either  (a)  an  Historical  Character,  or  (&)  a  Doctrinal,  and 
therefore  abstract,  character  to  store  up  in  mind.  These  are 
two  distinct  cases.    The  former  calls  for  Verbal  Memory ;  the 


CLINCHING   OUR  TEACHING  245 

latter  demands  Eational  Memory.  A'ekbal  Memory.  The 
mind  should  be  bright  and  fresh,  not  tired  and  wearied.  Ke- 
tention  is  a  necessary  part  of  memory,  and  the  brain  cells  are 
not  in  fit  condition  to  retain  when  wearied.  As  a  rule,  ac- 
cording to  Fitch,  the  mind  is  in  its  highest  cerebral  activity 
within  one  or  two  hours  after  the  morning  meal.  This  may 
var}-,  though,  with  different  persons.  Select  the  right  time, 
suited  to  your  condition  and  nature,  sit  down  and  read  over 
once,  twice,  three  times,  or  more,  the  whole  passage  to  be 
learned.  Then  begin,  little,  by  little,  to  anah'ze,  and  think 
about  each  line:  learning  and  repeating  it,  clause  by  clause 
(not  just  five  words  more,  etc.),  going  back  and  saying  the 
previously  committed  clauses,  until  all  is  learned.  Do  not  do 
this  by  rote  and  mechanically,  but  think  about  it;  recall, 
when  at  loss,  not  by  looking  at  the  book  immediately,  but 
by  analyzing  and  thinking.  Eepeat  the  selection  later  on  in 
the  day.  Eecall  it  early  the  next  day,  without  looking  at  the 
book,  and  then  verify  tlie  recall,  if  necessary.  If  you  are  of  a 
visual  type,  you  may  have  a  reproduction  in  your  mind  of 
the  very  page;  but  this  is  not  at  all  necessary,  or  even  the 
best  kind  of  memory.  The  secret  of  all  memory-training 
(never  forget  it)  is  Thinking,  Thinking,  Thinking. 
Reasoning. 

Reasoning,  as  we  liave  sliown  in  an  earl}-  Chapter,  is 
only  the  process  of  judging  facts;  of  willing  first,  adding  one 
group  of  facts,  and  then  adding  another  group;  of  setting 
one  off  against  the  other.  Reasoning  can  l>e  taught  onlj-  by 
teaching  deliljeration.  Only  b\-  causing  pupils  to  stop  and 
think;  only  by  mercilessly  causing  them  to  apply  definite 
logical  steps  in  a  mental  argument,  can  they  be  taught  to 
reason. 
The  Use  of  Types, 

Many  of  the  advantages  of  inductive  teaching  can  be  se- 
cured  through   compromise   In'tween   an   out-and-out   indue- 


24G  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

tion,  and  a  mere  statement  of  conclusion — namely,  through 
the  t3'pe  method.  The  thorough  study  of  one  typical  case 
of  a  class,  or  law,  gives  a  basis  of  real  experience  which  serves 
to  interpret,  though  not  to  prove,  the  general  statement. 
Knowledge  about  such  a  type  also  serves  as  a  centre  of  at- 
traction for  later  knowledge  of  things  like  it. 
Forgetting. 

We  do  not  forget,  however,  very  rapidly  mucli  tliat  we 
have  learned.  Professor  Ebbinghaus  proved  conclusively  that 
nothing  is  ever  wholly  forgotten.  The  process  of  forgetting 
is  vastly  more  rapid  at  first  than  later  on.  We  never  descend 
quite  so  low  in  any  forgotten  piece  as  to  reach  the  zero-line. 

Things  that  we  are  totally  unable  to  recall  have,  never- 
theless, left  their  impress.  We  are  different  beings  for  hav- 
ing once  learned  them.  Our  brain-paths  have  been  impressed; 
and  altered.  Our  actions  may  differ,  our  conclusions  must 
be  different,  than  would  have  been  the  case  had  we  never  ex- 
perienced such  impressions.  It  is  the  old  point  of  "no  im- 
pression without  expression."  Somehow,  we  will  always  be 
different  for  the  act  of  memorizing. 

Never  fail  to  divide  the  Memorizing  Process  into  its  parts : 
Attention,  Eetention,  and  Recall  or  Reproduction.  It  is  the 
last  part  that  most  often  fails.  The  child  who  says,  "1  know, 
but  I  cannot  remember  it,"  is  not  the  same  kind  of  a  child 
as  the  one  who  never  knew.  It  may  even  be  that,  much  later 
on,  by  quiet,  "unconscious  cerelu'ation,"  as  it  lias  been  termed, 
the  seemingly  forgotten  thought  may  flash  out  suddouly  n])on 
his  mental  vision.  The  brain-paths  were  for  the  lime  hlocked, 
and  the  associations  were  not  formed. 

In  Professional  Tjifc,  stored  away,  sciiii-rorgoilcn  fads  arc 
particularly  numerous.  The  Lawyer,  the  Doctor,  llie  Scien- 
tist, can  tell  you  but  a  meagre  niiml)er  of  liis  laws,  facts, 
formulae,  rulings,  prescriptions,  etc.  Rut  tiirough  his  well- 
ordered  systems,  indices,  files,  etc.,  he  can  go  at  once  to  the 


CLINCHING  OUR  TEACHING  247 

exact  spot  where  the  knowledge  is  in  print.     Others,  never 
having  had  that  knowledge,  not  only  could  not  trace  it  up; 
but,  if  under  their  eyes  could  not  comprehend  it,  so  new,  so 
strangely  unconnected  would  it  prove. 
Memoriter  Work. 

Here  is  what  Fitch  tliinks  of  "'Learning  by  heart."  It  is 
to  be  used : 

1.  For  Formulae  and  Eules,  as  in  Arithmetic,  and  all 
exact  Sciences.  Also  Definitions,  Axioms,  etc. — that  is,  such 
statements  as  have  been  reduced  most  carefully  to  the  simplest 
form  of  expression,  and  are  to  be  applied  with  perfect  ac- 
curacy. 

2.  Special  things  that  deserve  to  be  rememhered  as  of 
particular  value  in  themselves.  Such  should  be  Mottoes, 
Texts,  Proverbs,  Verses  of  Poetry,  Selections  from  great  Writ- 
ers, embodying  high  thoughts  or  fine  language.  Formularies 
of  the  Faith,  Wise  Maxims  and  Sayings — all  such  are  worth 
storing  up  most  precisely,  and  recalling  most  frequently.  The 
possessor  of  such  a  storehouse  has  an  invaluable  treasury  of 
wealth  to  draw  upon  for  all  occasions.  The  words  themselves 
have  a  purpose  and  beauty  all  their  own.  This  memorizing, 
however,  Avill  be  worse  than  bad,  unless  we  think  and  reflect 
on  what  we  learn. 

None  of  this  applies  to  useless  learning.  To  use  memory 
for  other  than  tlie  storing-up  of  beneficial  knowledge,  is 
wrong,  and  illegitimate.  The  several  pages  of  hints  that 
Professor  Fitcli  gives,  as  to  just  what  would  be  of  value  to 
learn  by  heart,  should  he  carcrully  conned  ))y  all  teachers. 
Some  memory  work  should  be  ])err()nued  by  everyone. 

According  to  James:  "The  excess  of  old-fashioned  verbal 
memoi'izing,  and  tlie  immense  advantages  of  object-teaching 
in  the  earlier  stages  of  culture,  have,  perliaps,  led  those  who 
philosophize  about  teaching  to  an  unduly  strong  reaction;  and 
learning  things  by  heart  is  now  probably  too  much  despised. 


248  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

For,  when  all  is  said  and  done,  the  fact  remains  that  verbal 
material  is,  on  the  whole,  the  handiest  and  most  useful  mate- 
rial in  which  thinking  can  be  carried  on — I  should  say,  there- 
fore, that  constant  exercise  in  verbal  memorizing  must  still 
be  an  indispensable  feature  in  all  sound  education.  Nothing 
is  more  deplorable  than  that  inarticulate  and  helpless  sort  of 
mind  that  is  reminded  by  everything  of  some  quotation,  ease, 
or  anecdote,  which  it  cannot  now  exactly  recollect.  Nothing, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  more  convenient  to  its  possessor,  or 
more  delightful  to  his  comrades,  than  a  mind  able,  in  telling 
a  story,  to  give  the  exact  words  of  the  dialogue,  or  to  furnish 
a  quotation,  accurate  and  complete." 
Reasons  for  Written-Answer  Work. 

Written  Answer  Work  always  should  l)o  demanded  for 
the  following  reasons : 

1.  AVe  know  thus  that  the  child  has  studied  the  lesson, 
and  done  the  work  demanded. 

2.  He  must  delve  harder,  and  thereby  form  more  asso- 
ciations in  order  to  formulate  the  statement  which  is  to  be  set 
down  as  an  answer.  It  must  be  in  his  own  language,  and  not 
a  copied  text. 

3.  He  must  dwell  on  it  still  longer,  in  order  to  make 
it  short  enough  to  be  inserted  in  the  purposely  small  space  left 
in  which  to  write  the  answer  in  tlie  Source-Mctiiod  text  books. 

4.  The  contrast  between  the  ])rinted  question  and  the 
written  answers  drives  the  answer  home  visually;  for  it  stands 
out  just  as  italics  would,  mikI  is  not  hoinogcneous  with  the 
questions. 

5.  The  child  actually  gains  by  what  we  term  Muscle  Mem- 
ory, the  mechanical  action  of  having  written  it,  and  gone 
through  the  muscular  motions.  There  are  certain  types  of 
Aphasia,  or  Amnesia,  that  is,  of  word-forgetting,  under  which 
tbe  patient  can  recall  a  word  by  writing  it.    It  docs  not  mat- 


CLINCH ING  OUR  TEACHING  249 

tei"  wliether  lie  writes  on  |)a])er,  or  in  the  air.     It  is  the  inusclo 
motion  that  reealls  it. 
Question-and-Answer  Books. 

The  prineijilc  of  such  books  is  wrong,  rataliy  and  "'U'eto- 
.tally  wrong."  Fitch  has  not  a  good  word  to  say  lor  them. 
Neither  has  McMurry,  nor  James.  Why?  Look  at  the  facts 
in  the  light  of  what  we  have  just  studied.  The  questions  arc 
not  to  be  learned,  usually,  only  the  answers.  The  answers 
are  isolated,  disconnected,  incomplete,  garbled  statements, 
often  about  one-fifth  of  a  statement,  of  which  the  balance  lies 
in  the  Question  itself.  In  some  of  these  books,  the  difliculty 
is  partially  met,  by  repeating  the  (Question  in  the  Answer, 
making  it  a  complete  statement.  This  is  l)etter,  perhaps,  but 
still  incorrect.  It  assumes  that  there  is  to  be  no  real  contact 
between  scholar  and.  teacher,  that  all  questions  asked  are  to 
take  a  particular  form,  and  admit  of  but  one  possible  answer. 
There  is  no  room  for  freedom,  for  intelligence  on  the  part  of 
either  teacher,  or  scholar.  It  is  all  a  formal  piece  of  almost 
mechanical  work,  with  no  real  room  for  Self-activity,  for 
proper  Questioning,  for  appeal  to  the  pedagogical  Heuristic 
or  Source  Method,  etc. 

Some  of  the  ideas  contained  in  the  Church  Catechism 
are  entirely  beyond  the  experience  of  children  of  seven  and 
eight  years  old;  but  the  ideas  contained  in  it,  which  do  appeal 
to  little  children,  are  so  great  and  important  that  Ave  have 
all  we  can  do  before  the  child  leaves  tlie  infant  school  to 
fill  these  ideas  with  content,  and  set  them  in  an  atmosphere 
of  reverence  and  love.  For  instance,  in  order  that  a  child 
may  grasp  something  of  the  meaning  of  the  phrase,  ^'Coni- 
munion  of  Saints,"  the  word  "Saint"  must  have  meaning  and 
associations  for  him.  Thus,  we  do  not  think  time  wasted  if 
we  devote  six  lessons  to  filling  with  content  the  word  "Saint," 
or  half  the  year  to  the  first  two  paragraphs  in  the  Creed, 
before  the  children  have  presented  to  them  the  words  of  either 


250  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

one  or  the  other.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  little  children 
should  never  learn  by  heart  wliat  tliey  do  not  fully  under- 
stand; they  do  not  fully  understand  the  Lord's  Prayer — who 
would  stay  them  from  that?  But  there,  and  in  similar  eases, 
we  have  a  form  of  words  ol'  permanent  value,  which  will  hll 
with  ever-increasing  content  as  life  goes  on;  and  of  whicii  the 
chihl  has  ahvady  a  vague  and  misty  notion  concentrated  round 
the  ever-familiar  word  "Father."' 
Specialization  in  Habit  Formation. 

Professor  Thorndike  says:  "All  that  can  he  done  to  put 
together  what  ought  to  go  together  is,  first,  to  teach  the  neces- 
sary form,  and  to  arrange  circumstances  with  more  or  less  of 
prohability  that  the  pupil  will  supply  the  desired  movement. 
A  motor  act,  for  which  no  present  use  or  hearing  is  seen, 
such  as  singing  a  solitary  note  over  and  over,  or  writing 
exercises,  or  drawing  lines  that  express  no  fact  of  moment, 
can  arouse  little  interest.  And  since  notes  are  to  be  used 
always  in  songs,  the  curves  be  written  always  in  words  and 
sentences,  the  lines  to  be  drawn  always  in  a  picture  of  some- 
thing, it  is  safe  to  follow  the  law  of  habit-formation,  and  so 
make  them  from  the  start." 

There  is  no  general  training  possible.  There  is  no  such 
thing  as  disciplinary  value  of  studies.  Nothing  can  be  taught 
merely  with  the  idea  of  helping  in  general,  and,  therefore, 
nothing  should  he  taught  unless  it  has  a  definite  use  in  itself. 

Again,  apply  this  same  law  to  our  personal  conduct. 
"There  is  no  way  of  becoming  self-controlled  except  by  to- 
day, to-morrow,  and  all  the  days,  in  each  conflict  controlling 
oneself.  There  is  no  possibility  of  gaining  general  accuracy, 
and  thoroughness,  except  by  seeking  accuracy  in  every  situa- 
tion, by  trying  to  be  tliorough  in  every  task,  by  being  accurate 
and  thorough  rather  than  slip-shod  and  mediocre,  whenever 
the  choice  is  offered.  No  one  becomes  honest  save  by  telling 
the  truth,  or  trustworthy  save  by  fullilliug  each  obligation  he 


CLINCHING  OUR  TEACHING  251 

accepts.  No  one  may  win  the  spirit  of  love  and  service  who 
does  not,  day  hy  day,  and  hour  hy  iiour,  do  each  act  of  kind- 
ness and  help  which  chance  puts  in  his  way,  or  liis  own 
thoughtfulness  can  discover.  Tlie  mind  does  not  give  some- 
thing for  nothing.  The  price  of  a  disciplined  intellect  and 
will  is  eternal  vigilance  in  the  fornuition  of  hahits." 
Rules  of  Habit  Formation. 

I'rofessor  James  gives  the  great  laws  under  which  we  i:an 
launch  New  Habits,  and  strengthen,  or  break  off.  Old  Ones. 

1.  In  acquiring  a  New  Habit,  or  leaving  off  an  Old  One, 
we  must  take  care  to  coiiiiiieiire  with  as  strung  an  inUiaiive 
as  possible.  Eeinforce  the  right  motives  and  surroundings, 
and  put  just  as  many  obstacles  as  you  can  in  the  way  of  the 
old  ones.  If  it  deals  with  the  body,  use  the  muscles  you  wish 
to  make  active.  If  the  Will,  use  it.  If  an  evil  habit,  do  not 
run  within  the  slightest  possible  range  of  the  temptation. 
Change  surroundings,  break  off  companions,  make  the  break 
absolute,  not  partial  and  incomplete.  Stamp  the  new  ideal 
into  the  mind  strongly,  and  so  vigorously  that  it  remains 
fastened  there,  and  even  crops  up  at  times  when  no  need 
occurs.  This  is  the  point  in  pledge-signing,  in  oath-taking, 
in  going  before  God's  Altar  for  impressiveness,  etc.  It  makes 
a  strong  and  powerful  initiative ;  it  stamps  in  a  vivid,  never- 
dying,  ineffaceable  impression.  With  this  new  Ideal,  it  will 
be  the  height  of  courage,  not  of  cowardice,  to  rvm  away  from 
the  forbidden  field,  the  place  of  strong  temptation. 

2.  His  second  maxim  is,  "Never  suffer  an  Exception  to 
ovcur,  until  the  new  Ilahit  is  securely  rooted  in  your  life. 
Each  lapse  is  the  unwinding  of  the  ball  of  twine.  It  is  im- 
portant that  you  never  allow  a  single  slip  to  occur.  Every 
gain  on  the  wrong  side  undoes  the  effect  of  many  more  con- 
quests on  the  right  side  of  the  war."  So,  too,  in  strengthen- 
ing a  habit  already  formed.  Use  it  constantly,  not  occasion- 
ally; systematically,  not  with  breaks. 


252  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUJ:)Y 

3.  Another  potent  rule  is,  "Use  every  Emotional  Prompt- 
ing to  act  on  your  Neiv  Resolution,  and  seize  the  first  oppor- 
tunity for  so  doing.  Have  no  hesitation,  or  wavering."  Act 
quickl}^,  before  you  doubt  your  power.  "JIc  who  iiesitates 
is  lost."  Completely  surrender  yourself  to  the  certainty  that 
you  will  never,  never,  never  fail  in  your  resolution.  Kemeni- 
ber  that  every  resolve  you  nuike,  every  good  impulse  thought 
of,  but  not  acted  upon,  every  intention  to  do  good,  or  to  help 
the  poor,  or  to  make  some  sacrifice,  every  motive  that  ends 
simply  and  solely  in  the  pious  wish,  docs  infinite  lianii.  There 
is  a  certain  warm  abode,  ])i-overl)ially  paved  with  good  inten- 
tions. Thousands  of  good  intentions  unfulfilled,  stimuli  un- 
reaeted  to,  diminish  our  resolution,  decrease  our  will  aiul  self- 
reliance,  precisely  as  unused  muscles,  which  become  soft  and 
flabby. 

4.  Thus  note  his  last  advice.  '']^on"t  ])reacli  too  much 
to  your  pupils,  or  abound  in  good  talk  in  the  abstract.  Lie 
in  wait,  rather,  for  the  practical  oppoi;tunities,  and  thus  at 
one  operation  get  your  pupils  both  to  think,  and  feel,  and  do. 
The  strokes  of  behavior  are  what  give  the  new  set  to  the 
character."  It  is  thus  the  action  that  is  the  main  thing. 
He  cites  the  pathetic  instance  of  Darwin,  who  utterly  lost 
all  appreciation  of  art,  poetry,  music,  painting,  etc.,  through 
total  application  to  facts  of  science.  We  pave  our  lives  with 
good  intentions  of  what  "we  intend  to  do  some  tlay,  when 
we  have  time." 

Elements  of  Moral  Training. 

The  training  of  Character  is  correspondingly  comple.x. 
Useful  instincts  must  be  given  a  chance  to  exercise  them- 
selves and  become  habits.  Harmful  instinctive  responses 
must  be  inhibited  through  lack  of  stiniulus,  through  the  sub- 
stitution of  desirable  ones,  or  through  actual  resultant  dis- 
comfort, says  Thorndike. 


CLINCHING  OUR  TEACHING  253 

We  would  urge  that  every  teacher  of  chihlren,  parent  or 
professional  teaelier,  read  earet'uUy  Miss  Harrison's  valuahle 
Study  of  Child  Nature,  since  it  contains  so  much  in  Cliap- 
ters  II.,  III.,  and  TV.  of  pregnant  suggestion  and  definite 
statement  as  to  tlie  training  and  significance  of  Habit.  She 
shows  liow  the  little  things  of  life,  such,  for  example,  as 
"plain  living  and  high  thinking,''  such  as  "luxurious  sur- 
roundings," and  "indulgence  in  condiments  and  pastry,"  such 
as  "pride  in  dress  and  looks'';  in  fact,  she  shows  how  all 
even  the  most  insignificant  points  of  environment,  count 
strongly  in  the  making  of  Character. 

Cultivation  of  Doing. 

To  children  of  action  the  schools  have  been  in  the  past, 
least  well-adapted.  Children  often  complain  of  school,  that 
there  is  nothing  to  do;  boys,  who  apparently  get  little  within 
school,  learn  quickly  and  surely  in  the  world  of  business  and 
industry;  students  who  could  not  manage  their  college  studies, 
become  eminent  managers  of  men. 

Here  are  some  suggestions: 

Mere  Manual  Activity. — Doing,  in  order  to  understand 
better.  Things  in  connection  with  the  lessons — maps  (drawn, 
modelled,  relief,  clay,  pulp,  colors,  etc.)  objects  referred  to  in 
lessons  (of  paper,  wood,  metal,  or  on  paper,  drawn  or 
painted),  Syudiols.  Schemes,  Ontlines,  Written  Work  in 
general. 

Personal  Habits. — Cleanliness,  Neatness,  Order,  Punctu- 
ality, Dress,  Politeness,  Gentleness  of  Voice  and  Manner, 
Manliness,  Courage,  Kindness,  Pity  and  Love  for  all  Ani- 
mals, etc. 

Moral  or  Ethical  Habits. — Duty  to  Fellowmen.  Honesty, 
Truthfulness,  Honor,  Purity,  Soberness,  Sobriety,  Unselfish- 
ness, Laws  of  the  Land,  Ideal  of  the  Si)irit  of  the  Laws, 
Health  Regulations,  etc. 


254  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Hahits  of  Duty  to  God  and  EeJlgious  Ohligations. — Ob- 
servation of  the  Lord's  Day,  of  Worship  (public  and  daily 
morning  and  evening,  private),  of  Thanksgiving,  of  Holy 
Communion,  of  Giving,  of  Temperate  Language,  avoidance 
of  even  the  least  forms  of  Oaths  or  Swearing,  etc. 

It  is  the  province  and  duty  of  the  Teacher  to  enquire  how 
these  teachings  are  practically  fulfilled  in  the  doing,  to  suggest 
ideals  for  fulfilment — positive,  not  negative.  "Do  this  good 
thing"  is  far  better  than  "Do  not  do  this  bad  one."  James 
says,  "Everything  that  a  man  can  avoid  under  the  notion  that 
it  is  bad,  he  may  also  avoid  under  the  notion  that  something 
else  is  good."  Cultivate  the  good  side — high  ideals.  "He 
whose  life  is  based  upon  the  word  'no,'  who  tells  the  truth 
because  a  lie  is  wicked — is  in  an  inferior  situation  in  every 
respect  to  what  he  would  be  if  the  love  of  truth  and  mag- 
nanimity possessed  him  from  the  outset."  It  is  James'  "ex- 
pulsive power  of  the  higher  emotion." 


QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  On  what  three  things  does  the  Value  of  Teaching  depend? 

2.  For  what  purpose  is  all  Teaching? 

3.  On  what  does  IMemory-training  depend? 

4.  What  are  the  Laws  of  Memory  ? 

5.  What  Eules  are  given  for  Verbal  Memory? 
0.  What   is   Reasoning?      Explain. 

7.  What  is  the  value  of  the  use  of  Tvi>es? 

8.  What  is  said  about  Forgetting? 

!).  For  what  should  Verbal  Memoriter  Work  be  used? 

}().  Why  is  Wl•itten-Ans\ver-^Vork  to  be  demanded? 

11.  What   is   said   of   Question-and-Answer   books,   and   of   the   Cate- 

chism? 

12.  What  is  said  of  Habit-formation? 

13.  What  are  the  Rules  for  Habit-formation? 

14.  What  are  the  Rules  for  INIemory  training? 

15.  By  what  means  can  the  Doing  Side  be  cultivated? 


SYLLABUS  OF  CHAPTER  XVI. 
THE  WILL  AND  THE  CHARACTER 

SUGGESTED  READING: 

Education  in  Religion  and  Morals,  Coe. 
The  Sunday  School  Teacher,  Hodges. 
Unconscious  Tuition,  Huntington. 

SUMMARY. 

Will  and  Judgment  born  in  the  Storm  and  Stress  Period.  Will 
arises  when  Intellect  and  Reason  a.re  ripe  to  guide  it. 

Stubbornness  is  not  strong  Will;  but  Aveak  Will.  Prompt  decision, 
the  habit  of  meeting  and  doing  unpleasant  things,  make  Will. 

Yielding  to  Appetites  weakens  Will,  such  as  (a)  Vicious  Feeding: 
(6)   Perfumery;    (c)   Praise;    {d)  Pride,  etc. 

Self-denial  is  as  primary  and  essential  a  principle  in  Life  as  Self- 
assertion. 

Desire  is  Impulse  plus  Appetite. 

Will  is  trained  by  (1)  forcing  Deliberation;  (2)  Desiring  that  the 
Higher  Appetite  shall  prevail  over  the  Lower  one. 

One  kind  of  Willing  is  higher  than  another  kind,  i.e.,  Thinking  is 
higher  than  Walking,  etc. 

Training  Judgment.  Reasoning  is  going  from  tlie  Known  to  the 
Unknown,  through  other  Known  facts;  reaching  Beliefs  tliroiigh 
Beliefs.    It  is  not  mere  Association  of  Ideas,  as  animals  liavo. 

So  to  tiaiu  Will  and  Reasoning,  train  (1)  to  think,  to  weigli,  to 
deliberate;  (2)  To  rule  out,  so  far  as  can  bo.  Personal  Con- 
siderations, likes  and  dislikes. 

Education  is  Will-training,  i.e.,  Cliaraclor-forniing;  i.e.,  i'.undlcs 
of  Habits,  of  Action. 

Christianity  is  Social  Service;  not  merely  Knowing  and  Thinking; 
but  Living  the  Life. 

Thus  "Every  Lesson  must  function  in  Doing"  in  the  present-day  life 
of  the  pupil. 


256  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Effect  of  Music  on  Will.     Important  as  Opening  ]\Iarcli  and  Service. 

Grown-up  Hymn  Books  unsuited  to  Youngest  Children. 
A   School  can  be  "directed"  and  ruled  entirely  and  best  by  Music, 

rather  than  by  Bell  or  Voice. 
Intellect,  Feeling,  and  Will,  though  inter-related,  are  never  equally 

strong  at  any  one  time. 
One  is  uppermost  and  other  two  are  in  abeyance  at  any  moment. 
Never  "break"  the  Will,  always  Train  it.    A  broken  Will  is  far  worse 

than  a  broken  leg  or  arm.     Handicaps  more  in  life. 
The  "Call"  of  the  Teacher.     Best  Definition  is  Thring's:     "A  Teacher 

is   one  who  has   Liberty  enough,   and   Time   enough,  and   Heart 

enough,   and  Head  enough,   to  be  a  Master  in  the  Kingdom  of 

Life." 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE   WILL   AND   THE   CHARACTER 

The  Training  of  the  Will. 

We  ]iave  noted  tliat  the  Stress  and  Storm  time  sees  tlie 
l)irtli  of  two  new  factors,  most  influential  for  future  good  or 
evil;  Will  and  Judgment.  Hitlierto,  the  child's  life  has  been 
chiefly  one  of  Feeling,  guided  as  he  has  been  almost  blindly 
by  Emotions  and  Impulses.  He  has  not  had  the  light  of  In- 
tellect to  guide  him.  Will  has  not  been  dominant,  perhaps 
chiefly  because  Intellect  and  Eeason  have  not  been  there  to 
stir  it.  He  has  been  wisely  held  in  check  by  Divine  Provi- 
dence, until  development  fitted  him  to  care  for  himself.  Ani- 
mal Instinct  has  protected  him.  He  has  been  practically  an 
animal ;  now  he  becomes  a  man,  with  Intellect  and  Will  in  the 
ascendency.  The  Will  must  be  trained,  rather  than  broken. 
This  is  done,  more  or  less  consciously,  by  the  presentation  of 
vivid  examples  that  hold  and  attract  the  mind,  and  bestir 
action.  Prompt  decision,  the  habit  of  doing  unpleasant  things 
the  moment  we  see  them  in  our  judgment  to  be  riglit,  without 
risking  long  deliberation  and  hesitation;  the  resolve  never  to 
break  Ideals,  nor  suffer  an  exception  to  a  noble  conception, 
such  things  in  life  soon  go  to  form  a  strong,  decisive  Will. 
Stubbornness  is  not  strong  Will,  but  the  contrary;  a  Will  too 
weak  to  do  what  is  right  and  proper. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  Froebel,  in  his  Educatiox 
OF  Man,  refers  to  the  weakening  of  Will  by  indulgence  of 
appetites,  especially  by  stimulating  and  highly  seasoned  food. 


258  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

He  even  states  that  nine-tenths  of  intemperate  drinking  be- 
gins, not  in  grief,  and  destitution,  but  in  vicious  feeding. 

Miss  Harrison,  in  her  Study  of  Child-Nature,  speaks 
of  the  Aveakening  power  of  indulgence  in  perfuuieiy,  resulting 
in  lowered  ideals.  She  points  out  also  the  harmful  effect  of 
injudicious  praise  of  a  child's  curls  and  cheeks,  ratlier  than 
actions  and  beauty  of  conduct. 

She  adds  significantly:  "Even  our  Sunday  Schools,  with 
their  prizes,  and  exhilutions,  and  sensational  pi-ograniuies,  are 
not  exempt  from  the  crime.  I  have  seen  the  Holy  Easter 
festival  so  celebrated  by  Sunday  Schools  that,  so  far  as  its 
effects  upon  the  younger  children  were  concerned,  they  might 
each  one  as  well  have  been  given  a  glass  of  intoxicating 
liquor,  so  upset  was  their  digestion,  so  excited  their  brains, 
so  demoralized  their  unused  emotions.  Need  I  speak  of 
the  relish  side  of  the  dress  of  children?  John  Ruskin,  the 
great  apostle  of  the  beautiful,  claims  that  no  ornament  is 
beautiful  which  has  not  a  use." 

Self-denial  is  as  true  and  essential  a  principle  of  life  as 
is  self-assertion.  "Without  self-surrender  and  self-sacrifice, 
nobody  could  be  a  person  at  all.  To  become  a  person,  one 
must  both  affirm  and  deny  himself.  One  involves  the  other. 
They  are  not  totally  different  things.  They  are  diverse  aspects 
of  the  same  thing.  They  belong  together  as  indissolubly  as 
the  two  sides  of  the  board  do.  To  get  we  must  also  give,  to 
advance  we  must  surrender,  to  gain  we  must  lose,  to  attain 
we  must  resign.  From  the  nature  of  things,  life  means  choice 
and  selection,  and  every  positive  choice  negatives  all  other  pos- 
sibilities. Every  choice  runs  a  line  of  cleavage  through  the 
entire  universe.  If  I  take  this,  I  give  up  that." 
Desire  and  Will. 

Desire  really  means  Impulse  plus  Appetite,  the  instinctive 
cravings  of  the  animal  system  demanding  satisfaction.  The 
Impulses,  the  Desires,  form  appetites.     Comjjeting  Desires, 


THE  WILL  AND  THE  CHARACTER  259 

or  rather  competing  motives,  arc  presented  to  a  child.  The 
Will  is  trained  by,  first,  causing  a  child  to  deliberate,  and,, 
secondly,  causing  him  to  desire  that  the  lower  motives  shall 
be  ruled  by  the  higher,  until  this  principle  becomes  more  and 
more  the  basis  of  his  life. 
Choice  and  Decision. 

There  is,  moreover,  the  difference  of  value  in  Willing. 
One  kind  of  Willing  is  higher  than  another.  As  Professor 
James  puts  it:  "Writing  is  higher  than  walking,  thinking  is 
higher  than  writing,  deciding  higher  than  thinking,  deciding 
'no'  higher  than  deciding  S^os' — at  least,  the  man  who  passes 
from  one  of  these  activities  to  another  will  usually  say  that, 
each  later  one  involved  a  greater  element  of  inner  work  than 
the  earlier  ones,  even  tliough  the  total  heat  given  out,  or  the 
foot-pounds  expended  by  the  organism,  may  be  less.  Just 
how  to  conceive  this  inner  work  physiologically  is  yet  possible: 
but  psychologically  we  all  know  what  the  word  means.  We 
need  a  particular  spur,  or  effort,  to  start  us  upon  inner  work ; 
it  tires  us  to  sustain  it;  and,  when  long  sustained,  we  know 
how  easily  we  lapse.  When  I  speak  of  "^energizing,'  and  its 
rates  and  levels  and  sources,  I  mean,  therefore,  our  inner  as 
well  as  our  outer  work."' 
Training  the  Judgment. 

The  child  tends  to  believe  what  first  comes  into  his  mind, 
no  matter  from  what  source;  and,  as  he  has  not  rational  power 
of  reasoning,  he  is  both  credulous  and  incredulous.  He  has 
nothing  to  guide  him  in  deciding  what  he  ought  to  believe. 
What  reason  does  for  the  snuill  child  is  to  cause  him  to  aban- 
don beliefs  that  are  plainly  at  variance  with  his  experience. 
"Eeasoning,  then,  is  the  act  of  going  from  the  known  to  the 
unknown  through  other  beliefs,  of  basing  judgments  on 
Judgments,  reaching  beliefs  through  beliefs." 

"It  is  not  Association  of  Ideas,  merely,  such  as  animals 
have.      This   difference   constitutes   the   main   differentiation 


2G0  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

bctweeji  animals  and  men.  iVnimals  go  on  from  idea  to  idea, 
without  seeing  the  end  in- view,  without  tliinking  or  reasoning 
about  it.  One  idea  calls  up  the  next,  and  so  on.  It  is  not  a 
mental  picture,  or  image,  or  concept,  with  the  animal;  rather 
an  impulse,  or  instinct.  ]k'asoning  only  seems  at  times  to 
lead  to  false  conclusions,  because  one  or  more  of  the  starting 
points,  the  premises,  we  call  them,  is  false  and  incorrect.  If 
we  saw  ^all  around'  the  subject,  all  sides  of  it  truly,  we  would 
not  differ  in  reasoning.  Wrong  theories  nuiy  lead  to  false 
assumptions,  and  so  sidetrack  reasoning." 

Two  things  must,  therefore,  be  done  to  train  the  reasoning 
or  judging  power  of  your  pupils.  (1)  Train  them  to  think, 
to  reason,  to  weigh  sides,  not  "jumping  at  hasty  conclusions"; 
but  "thinking  twice,  before  speaking  once."  Yery  soon  this 
becomes  a  fixed  habit,  that  will  go  on  through  life,  making  a 
quiet,  deliberate  type  of  mind.  (2)  Educate  so  as  to  lessen, 
so  far  as  you  can,  the  power  of  personal  considerations,  indi- 
vidual likes  and  dislikes  in  selecting  the  premises  on  which 
they  base  their  decisions.  Create  in  them  such  a  love  of  the 
Truth,  the  Right  Side,  the  Just,  as  will  be  able  to  overcome 
the  personal  equation.  We  believe  what  we  ivant  to  believe. 
That  is,  we  obstinately  persist  in  holding  up  the  attractive, 
though  wrong,  idea  before  the  mind;  and,  at  the  same  time, 
as  stubbornly  set  our  faces,  like  flints,  to  the  admission  of  the 
true  and  right  notions. 

Education  as  Character-Building  is  Will-Training,  if  "the 
purpose  of  religious  education  is  to  build  up  a  character  for 
the  best,"  and  Character  is  a  bundle  of  habits,  that  is,  a  bundle 
of  repeated  actions,  and  action  is  Willing.  The  only  way  to 
obtain  force  of  Character  is  to  secure  it  by  definite  training 
of  the  Will. 

Brotherhood  means  social  service.  'No  one  will  go  to 
Heaven  alone;  no  one  will  save  himself  alone.  The  whole 
idea  of  Christianity  and  of  the  Gospel  is  Service.     Now  Ser- 


THE  WILL  AND  THE  CHARACTER  261 

vice  cannot  be  learned  by  precept,  by  sermons,  b}'  intellectual 
mandates.  Cbristian  living  can  only  be  learned  by  Cbristian 
doing;  and  Christian  character,  i.e.,  Christian  habits,  must 
be  done  and  lived,  day  by  day,  if  the  child  is  to  be  a  real 
Christian,  that  is,  a  Christ  man.  "If  a  man  does  what  is 
useful  and  right,  he  will  soon  gain  proper  ideas  of  social 
efficiency,  and  of  morals.  If  he  learns  to  do  the  right  thing 
in  a  thousand  particular  situations,  he  will,  so  far  as  he  is 
capable,  gain  the  poAver  to  see  what  act  a  new  situation  de- 
mands." As  Thorndike  puts  it :  "There  is  no  way  of  be- 
coming self-controlled  except  by  to-day,  to-morrow,  and  all 
the  days  in  each  conflict,  controlling  one's  self.  ISTo  one 
becomes  honest  save  by  telling  the  truth,  or  trustworthy  save 
by  fulfilling  each  obligation  which  he  accepts.  No  one  may 
win  the  spirit  of  love  and  service,  who  does  not,  day  by  day, 
and  hour  by  hour,  do  each  act  of  kindness  and  help  which 
chance  puts  in  his  way,  or  his  own  tlioughtfulness  can  dis- 
cover. The  mind  does  not  give  something  for  nothing.  The 
price  of  a  disciplined  intellect  and  will  is  eternal  vigilance  in . 
the  formation  of  habits." 
Every  Lesson  Must  Function  in  Doing. 

The  Application  of  the  principles  behind  the  definition  as 
the  building  up  of  a  "character  efficient  for  the  best"  means 
that  ere/-//- lesson  taught  in  the  Day  School  or  the  Sunday 
School  must  function  in  the  daily  present-day  life  of  the 
scholar.  It  is  not  a  lesson  of  principles  and  precepts  for  some 
far-off  day  in  life,  but  it  is  a  lesson  of  application  to  the 
daily  life  between  Sundays,  to  the  life  before  ne.vt  Sunday. 
It  means  that  the  teacher  should  deliberately  supply  outlets 
for  self-activity,  opportunities  for  serA'ice,  applications  of  the 
lesson  to  the  child's  own  personal  conduct  in  honesty,  truth- 
fulness, purity,  and  right-mindedness.  There  may  be  any 
amount  of  "Education"  in  the  old  sense  of  knowledge,  with- 
out the  slightest  result  in  the  building  of  Christian  character. 


262  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Character,   therefore,   is   being,   not   talking;    is   living,   not 

knowing. 

The  Effect  of  Music  on  the  Will. 

Much  has  been  written  on  this  subject.  James,  in  his 
lecture  on  the  Value  of  Psychology,  deals  with  it  very  fully. 
It  is  well  recognized  in  the  treatment  of  the  insane.  A  recent 
opera  in  New  York  had  to  be  taken  off  the  stage  entirely 
because  of  the  effect  upon  the  musicians,  players,  and  the 
audience. 

According  to  Miss  Lee :  It  is  wonderful  to  notice  the  effect 
of  music  on  children;  they  respond  so  unconsciously,  but  so 
unmistakably. 

The  vigorous  entrance  march,  played  not  too  fast,  with 
well-marked  beat  and  simple  theme,  will  generate  in  the 
children  a  mood  of  briskness  and  order.  The  change  of  music 
to  a  slower  and  softer  tone,  and  then  to  silence,  will  change 
the  "feeling-tone"  of  the  children  themselves,  and  it  will  not 
be  necessary  to  call  for  "silence,"  for  the  piano  has  "spoken," 
and  they  have  responded.  The  piano  "speaks"  so  much  more 
effectively,  unobtrusively,  and  impersonally,  than  superinten- 
dent or  bell,  that  it  is  well  in  our  Primary  Sunday  School 
to  minimize  our  order  "from  the  desk,"  and  let  the  piano, 
with  its  double  chord,  tell  the  children  to  stand  up  and 
sit  down. 

The  ideal  children's  hymn-book  lias  yet  to  l)e  written. 
Grown-up  people's  hymn-books  contain  little  that  is  appro- 
priate to  our  "Infant  Sunday  School,"  though  that  little  is 
often  very  good.  Hymns  for  little  child i-on  uiust  bo  quite 
short,  in  an  easy  metre,  free  from  difficult  words,  ])hrases,  or 
inversions,  simple  and  unified  in  thought,  and,  if  possible, 
involving  some  kind  of  refrain.  Hymns  should  be,  for  little 
children,  a  Joyous  expression  of  feeling.  Therefore  the  sing- 
ing of  them  should  be  a  pleasure,  and  not  a  labour.  They 
should  be  permeated  with  religious  feeling;  they  are  hymns, 


THE  WILL  AND  THE  CHARACTER  263 

not  songs;  they  are,  in  most  cases,  pra3'ers  sung  to  God, 
As  such,  tl)en,  they  must  be  treated.  A  quieting  gesture  every 
now  and  then  will  remind  the  children  not  to  "shout." 

In  ahnost  ever}^  School  there  will  be  some  pupils  whose 
hearts  will  respond  to  good  music.  A  certain  school  within 
our  acquaintance,  appreciating  this,  turns  it  to  a  fine  and 
subtle  use  by  giving  an  appropriate  music  in  of  if  of  two  or 
tliree  bars,  mostly  taken  from  the  Oratorios,  to  each  of  tlie 
Psalms  that  are  used  for  recitation.  These  are  quickly  learned 
and  recognized  by  the  School,  and  are  played  before  the  reci- 
tation of  each  Psalm  in  lieu  of  other  announcement. 

The  same  school  frequently  uses  some  Wagnerian  motifs 
to  cover  the  diminishing  hum  at  the  close  of  the  lesson,  and 
as  calls  to  order. 
Inter-relation  of  Intellect,  Feeling,  and  Will. 

As  Gordy  puts  it :  "Although  intellect,  sensibility,  and 
will,  are  but  different  names  for  the  one  mind,  as  feeling,  and 
willing  and  knowing,  there  is  scarcely  a  moment  in  our 
waking  hours  when  we  are  not  doing  all  three  at  the  same 
time.  Examine  our  minds  whenever  we  will,  we  shall  find 
ourselves  knowing,  and  generally  feeling,  and  thinking,  and 
willing.  Nevertheless,  we  cannot  know  intensely,  and  feel  or 
will  intensel}^  at  the  same  time;  or  feel  intensely,  and  know 
or  will  intensely,  at  the  same  time. 

"The  practical  rules  Avhich  are  based  upon  this  law  arc 
so  evident  that  it  is  needless  to  enlarge  upon  them.  You 
know  that  when  your  pupils  are  annised,  tliey  do  not  study 
much,  ])ecause  amusement — a  ])]easurable  feeling — is  a  hin- 
drance to  tliat  eoncenti'ation  ol'  mind  which  we  call  study- 
knowing. 

"jSTotwithstanding  this  opposition,  there  is  an  interde- 
pendence of  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing.  When  you  hurt 
your  hand — feeling — you  know  that  you  hurt  it,  and  you  try 
to  relieve  the  pain — willing." 


204  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

Will-Breaking. 

James  and  Trumbull  both  inveigh  against  the  pernicious 
idea  that  the  way  to  correct  faults  was  to  break  the  Will. 
A  broken  will  is  about  as  useless  as  a  broken  bow.  The  child 
with  a  broken  will  is  handicapped  more  than  by  one  arm,  or 
one  leg  in  tlie  struggle  of  life.  Without  a  will  of  some  kind, 
good  or  bad,  there  can  be  no  progress.  There  are  thousands 
of  weak-willed  men  in  this  world  to-day,  wlio  have  their 
parents  to  blame  for  a  failure  in  business  and  in  life.  Better 
let  the  child's  will  be  bad,  rather  than  broken.  Fortunatel}^, 
there  is  no  necessity  for  its  remaining  bad,  any  more  than  for 
its  being  broken.  It  is  for  the  teacher  and  tlie  parent  to  avoid 
this  fatality  by  cautious  training. 
The  "Call"  of  the  Teacher. 

A  passing  word  may  not  be  amiss,  at  the  conclusion  of 
this  training  course  to  teachers,  as  to  their  divine  call  and 
special  privilege  to  work  in  God's  Vineyard.  The  best  defini- 
tion of  the  function  of  the  teacher  has  been  given  by  Thring : 
"A  Teacher  is  one  who  has  Liberty  enough,  and  Time  enough, 
and  Heart  enough,  and  Head  enough,  to  be  a  Master 
in  the  Kingdom  of  Life."  "A  jMaster  in  the  Kingdom  of 
JAi'c" — tliink  of  it!  TJic  most  important  work  in  tlie  entire 
Churcli  to-day  is  the  work  of  tlic  Sunday  Scliool  Teacher. 
If  one  had  to  take  a  choice  (thank  (Jod,  we  do  not!)  between 
closing  the  doors  of  the  Cburcli  for  a  season,  or  closing  tlie 
doors  of  the  Sunday  School,  we  would  judge  the  Sunday 
Scliool  of  greater  importance.  Someone  has  remarked  that 
we  of  the  clergy  stand  in  tlic  pulpit.  We  have  before  us  in 
tlie  congregation  an  assembly  of  bottles.  Some  of  these  bot- 
tles are  corked,  and  some  are  uncorked  ;  some  liave  wide  necks, 
and  some  have  narrow  ones.  We  stand  and  sprinkle  over  them 
a  sponge  filled  with  hyssop  and  water.  The  corked  bottles 
are  those  who  are  either  dull  mentally  or  physically — they 
receive  nothing.     The  narrow-necked,  uncorked  bottles,  drink 


TJIE  Wll.J.  AND  THE  CHARACTER  265 

in  a  few  drops  liere  and  there,  but  only  a  few.  'J'liey  are 
either  inattentive,  or  too  young,  or  too  indilferent,  or  tlie 
prcaclier  talks  over  their  heads.  The  wide-necked,  uncorked 
bottles,  are  eager  to  drink  in  all  that  they  can,  but  even  they 
miss  much.  None  of  the  bottles  are  filled.  A  great  many  drops 
fall  between  the  bottles  and  are  wasted.  The  Teacher  is  tlie 
one  who  takes  each  bottle  individually,  and  places  it  under  the 
faucet,  and  turns  on  the  Avater  and  fills  the  bottle.  In  the 
Mission  Field,  to-day,  and  in  the  Church  at  home,  it  is  the 
individual  Teacher  who  counts  for  the  most. 
Liberty  Enough. 

There  is  the  freedom  to  teach  what  one  believes.  The 
Sunday  School  is  no  place  for  teachers  who  have  not  settled 
their  own  doubts.  It  is  no  place  for  destructive  criticism.  It 
is  the  place  for  constructive  criticism.  It  is  the  place  for 
sound  doctrine  in  the  foundations  of  belief.  "The  prophet 
should  give  no  uncertain  sound,"  and  so  the  Sunday  School 
Teacher  must  be  one  of  positive  conviction;  and  those  points 
of  scholarship  that  are  proved,  and  on  which  educators  uni- 
versally agree,  have  their  place  in  the  Sunday  School  only  in 
positive  teaching.  There  is  plenty  that  is  sure  and  settled  in 
the  Faith  to  build  up  character.  We  have  no  need  to  draw 
on  platitudes  of  scholarship,  or  tread  uncertain  ground. 
Time  Enough. 

There  is  the  opportunity  for  sufficient  and  proper  study 
and  preparation;  for  the  personal  acquaintance  with  the 
children  by  frequent  calling  upon  them  in  their  homes;  for, 
at  least,  three  hours  a  week  of  solid  study.  Three  things 
every  Teacher  who  is  worthy  of  her  calling  should  undertake : 
Three  hours  a  week  for  study;  two  hours  a  week  for  calling, 
and  one  hour  a  week  for  the  Teacher-Training  Class.  Work 
that  is  worth  doing  for  God  at  all,  is  worth  doing  well.  As 
Drawbridge  says:  "In  those  Sunday  Schools  where  little  or 
nothing  is  expected  of  the  teachers,  they  get  bored,  and  soon 


2GG  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD   STUDY 

k'avc.  And  their  classes  have  usually  anticipated  their  de- 
parture. Where  the  ideal  is  a  high  one,  and  the  leader  of  the 
school  is  an  enthusiast,  the  teachers  discover  that  teaching  is 
very  interesting.  Their  pupils  simultaneously  begin  to  ap- 
preciate Sunday  School.  It  is  a  very  great  mistake  to  have 
a  lov^^  ideal  for  those  whom  one  would  iniinence,  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  easy  to  expect  too  much  from  them.  The  fact  is, 
that  people  always  endeavor  to  rise  to  one's  estimate  of  them, 
and  they  respond  to  a  high  ideal  much  more  readily  than  to  a 
low  one.  There  is  mncli  more  heroism  and  self-sacrifice  in 
human  nature  than  pessimists  suppose.  That  is  a  mean  and 
foolish  proverb  which  says :  'Blessed  is  he  that  expecteth 
nothing,  for  he  will  not  be  disappointed.'  Those  who  expect 
most  of  their  fellows  are  the  ones  least  disappointed  in  them." 
Heart  Enough. 

There  is  the  personal  element  of  sympathy,  and  love, 
without  which  no  Teacher  can  be  a  success.  It  is  "the  smile 
that  won't  come  off."  It  is  the  quality  that  Dean  Hodges 
calls  Cheerfulness.  In  his  little  brochure  on  The  Sunday 
School  Teacher,  he  says,  "The  good  teacher  has  a  bright 
face.  All  good  Christians  are  good-looking.  The  teacher, 
who  represents  the  Christian  religion,  ought  of  all  people  to 
liave  a  cheerful  countenance.  That  is  a  vital  part  of  his  in- 
struction. St.  Paul  showed  his  profound  knowledge  of  human 
nature  when  he  enjoined  those  who  show  mercy  to  do  it  with 
cheerfulness.  He  knew  very  M^ell  how  the  long  face,  the 
sombre  manner,  the  artificial  pathos  and  piety  of  some  benevo- 
lent persons,  spoil  their  gifts.  There  is  a  look  in  the  faces 
of  some  of  the  people  who  are  seen  in  electric  cars  carrying 
limp-covered  Bibles  under  their  arms,  which  is,  of  itself,  an 
argument  against  the  Christian  religion.  The  natural  man, 
beholding  such  disciples,  says  within  himself,  'From  this  re- 
ligion, good  Lord,  deliver  us.'  It  is  true  that  the  warning, 
'Be  not  rigliteous  overmuch,'  is  written  in  the  book  of  Eccle- 


THE  WILL  AND  THE  CHARACTER  2G7 

siastes,  which  is  not  tlie  host  book  in  tlie  Bible.  If  we  talce 
righteousness  to  mean  simple,  interior  goodness,  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  be  righteous  overmuch.  Nobody  can  be  too  good.  It 
is  quite  possible,  however,  to  be  righteous  overmuch  in  tlie 
matter  of  expression.  There  is  an  oppressive  goodness  which 
defeats  its  own  purposes.  It  is  highly  desirable,  in  order  to 
give  effective  instruction,  that  the  Sunday  Scliool  Teaclicr 
be  a  human  being,  and  tlie  children  ought  to  be  informed  of 
that  encouraging  fact  Ijy  the  teacher's  behavior." 
Head  Enough. 

There  is  the  wide,  collateral  study  which  goes  beyond  the 
paltry  preparation  of  the  individual  lesson,  and  reaches  out 
to  the  widest  and  hroadest  phases  of  a  ripened  Education. 
One  cannot  know  too  much  about  any  subject,  and  there  is 
probably  no  line  of  Education  where  teachers  seem  so  afraid 
to  know  any  more  than  they  will  need  to  teach  in  a  particular 
lesson  hour,  as  the  Sunday  School.  If  one  is  teaching  the 
Life  of  our  Blessed  Lord,  it  is  not  enough  to  read  the  meagre 
Teachers'  Notes,  which,  at  the  best,  only  serve  as  crutches  for 
lame  teachers;  one  should  read  each  week  two  or  more  of  the 
many  excellent  lives  of  Christ.  No  two  men  have  ever  viewed 
the  Master  from  the  same  viewpoint.  No  two  have  ever 
written  duplicate  biographies.  Each  one  tells  something  new. 
Just  as  the  same  landscape  looks  different  from  varying  moun- 
tains, so  the  lesson  topic  should  be  viewed  from  many  stand- 
points. Therefore,  read  Stalker,  and  Farrar,  and  Geikie,  and 
Edersheim,  and  Andrews,  and  Dawson.  Dip  into  each  of 
them.  Eead  between  times.  Use  odd  moments.  Cultivate 
the  hungering  and  thirsting  after  knowledge.  Once  get  the 
Vision,  and  the  Study  becomes  absorbing.  There  is  time  for 
it — plenty  of  time  in  everyone's  life — time  snatched  from 
the  w^asted  moments,  from  the  light  gossip,  from  the  bridge- 
whist,  from  the  idle  novel,  from  the  too  much  sleep,  and 
God's  Avork  is  Avorthy  of  it  all. 


268  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION. 

1.  When  are  Will  and  Judgment  born? 

2.  What  is  Stubbornness? 

3.  How  is  yielding  to  appetite  weakening  to  Will? 

4.  What  is  said  of  Self-denial? 

5.  How  is  Will  trained? 

6.  How  is  one  kind  of  Willing  higher  than  another  kind? 

7.  What   is   Reasoning? 

8.  How  do  we  develop  Reasoning? 

9.  What  is  Education,  in  terms  of  Will? 

10.  What  is  Christianity,  in  terms  of  Action? 

11.  What  Maxim  follows  regarding  the  teaching  of  a  lesson? 

12.  Discuss  eflects  of  Music  on  the  Will. 

13.  What  can  you  say  of  the  interrelation  of  Intellect,  Feeling,  and 

Will? 

14.  What  is  the  danger  of  a  "broken"  Will? 

15.  State  the  best  definition  of  a  Teacher. 


List  of  Reference  Books  Suggested 

Those   Marked    With    Dagger    (t)    Are    Essential    to    a    Futx 

Knowledge  of  this  Course.    Those  Marked  with  Star  (*) 

.  Abe  Especially  Helpful  and  Illuminating. 

Note. — All  these  books  may  be  secured  through  the  New  York 
Sunday  School  Commission,  Inc.,  416  Lafayette  Street,  New  York; 
The  Young  Churchman  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis.;  or  any  other  book 
retailer. 

I.— THE  TEACHER'S  WORK. 

Unconscious  Tuition.     Huntington.     Flanagan.     15  cts. 

The  Sunday  School  Teacher.    Hodges.    8.  S.  Commission.     10  cts. 

Character  Building.     C.  S.  Coler.     Hinds  &  Noble.     $1.00. 

The  Making  of  Character.     MacCunn.     Macmillan.     $1.25. 

II.— PROCESS  OF  MIND  GROWTH. 

t*TALKS  to  Teachers.     Prof.  William  James.     Holt.     $1.50. 

*The  New  Psychology.    Prof.  Gordy.    Hinds  &  Noble.    $1.25. 

*Brain  and  Personality.    W.  H.  Thompson.    Dodd,  Mead.    $1.20. 

The  Pedagogical  Bible  School.    Samuel  B.  Haslett.    Rcvell.    $1.25. 

"The  Study  of  Children.    Dr.  Francis  Warner.    Macmillan.     $1.00. 

t*A  Study  in  Child  Nature.  EUzaheth  Harrison.  Chic.  Kinder- 
garten Co.     $1.00. 

t"  Childhood.     Mrs.  Birney.     $1.00. 

*The  Mind  of  a  Child.     Ennis  Richmond.     Longmans.     $1.00, 

*Child  Nature  and  Child  Nurture.  Prof.  E.  P.  St.  .John.  Pilgrim 
Press.     50  cts. 

t*THE  Boy  Problem.    Rev.  Wm.  B.  Forhiish.     Pilgrim  Press.     $1.00. 

Adolescence.     Stanley  Hall.     2  vols.     Scribner's,  $7.50. 

*The  Psychology  of  Religion.     Prof.  Starbuek.    Scribner's.     $1.50. 

t*THE  Spiritual  Life.     Geo.  A.  Coe,  Ph.D.    Revell.     $1.35. 

A  Modern  Study  of  Conscience.  Rev.  Oliver  Huckel.  Winston 
Press.     75  cts. 

*The  Training  of  the  Young  in  Laws  of  Sex.  Rev.  E.  Lytfleton. 
Longmans.     75  cts. 


270  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 

The  Vir  Series.     The  Vir  Pub.  Co.     $L00  each. 
*Making  Men  and  Women.    Miss  Robinson.    Eaton  &  Mains.    75  cts. 
Education  IN  Religion  AND  Morals.  Geo.A.Coe,Ph.D.  Revell.  $L35. 
Up  Through  Childhood.     Prof.  Geo.  A.  Hubbell.     Putnams.     $L50. 

III.— THE   LESSON. 

t"THE  Teaching  of  Bible  Classes.     Edwin  E.  See.     International 

Y.  M.  C.  A.     Paper,  40  cts. 
^^ Adult  Class  Study.    Prof.  Irving  Wood.    Pilgrim  Press.     75  cts. 
Adult  Classes.     Prof.  Wood.     Pilgrim  Press.     Paper,  25  cts. 
t*How  TO  Conduct  the  Recitation.   Chas.  McMurry.   Flanagan,  15c. 

IV.— RELIGIOUS  PEDAGOGY. 

■"'Religious    Education.      Rev.    W.    W.    Smith,    M.D.      The    I'oung 

Churchman  Co.     $2.00. 
t*A  Primer  on  Teaching.    Prof.  Adams.    T.  &  T.  Clark.    Scribner's. 

25  cts. 
Elements  of  Religious  Pedagogy.     Prof.  F.  L.  Pattee.     Eaton  & 

Mains.     75  cts. 
t*HAND  Work  in  the  Sunday  School.     Littlefield.     S.  S.  Commis- 
sion.   $1.00. 
t*PiCTURES  and  Picture  Work.   Dr.  Walter  L.  Hervey.    Revell.    35c. 
*Stories  and  Story  Telling.    Prof.  E.  P.  St.  John.    Pilgrim  Press. 

50  cts. 
Story  Telling.     Edna  Lyman.    McClurg.    $1.00. 
t*Kow  to  Interest.    Rev.  Wm.  G.  Mutch.     S.  S.  Commission.     15c. 
t*TiiE  Art  of  Securing  Attention.     J.  J.  Fitch.     Flanagan.     15c. 
t*How  TO  Hold  Attention.     Prof.  Hughes.     Barnes,  50c. 
t*Hovv^  TO  Keep  Order.     Prof.  Hughes.     Flanagan,  15c. 
t*TiiE  Art  of  Questioning.     J.  J.  Fitch.     Flanagan,  15e. 
t"How  to  Question.     Prof.  H.  H.  Home.     Pilgrim  Press.     3  cts. 
*How  TO  Train  the  Memory.     Quick.    Barnes,  15c. 
John  Ploughman's  Talks.     Spurgeon.     Funk  &  Wagnalls.     12  cts. 
*Glimpses  Through  Life's  Windows.     Miller.     Altemus  Pub.  Co. 

50  cts. 
Five-Minute  Op.ject  Sermons.    Sylvanus  Stall.    Vir  Pub.  Co.  $1.00. 
Legends  of  the  Patriarchs  and  Prophets.     Rev.  S.  Baring-Gould. 
*A  Book  op  Golden  Deeds.     Yonge.    Macmillan.    $1.00. 
Wonder  Book.     2V.  Haxvthornc.    Altemus.     50  cts. 
t*MANiTAL  Work  for  the  Sunday   School.     Sexton.     The  Young 

Churchman  Co.     75  cts. 
History  of  England.     Macauley.     Harpers.     $1.25. 
Silas  Marner.     George  Eliot.     Altemus.     50  cts. 
*FiNGER  Posts  to  Children's  Reading.     Taylor.     McClurg.     $1.00. 


LIST  OF  REFERENCE  BOOKS  SUGGESTED      271 

*What  Shall  a  Young  Girl  Read?  Myt.  gangster.  S.  S.  Times  Co. 
50  cts. 

v.— GRADING  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL. 

t*THE  Churchman's  Manual  of  Sunday  School  Methods.  Rev. 
A.  A.  Butler,  D.D.     Y.  C.  Co.     $1.00. 

t*THE  Sunday  School  of  Today.    Rev.  W.  W.  Smith.    Revell.   $1.2-5. 

The  Modern  Sunday  School.    Rci\  H.  E.  Cope.    Revell.    $1.00. 

The  Organized  Sunday  School.  Axtell.  The  Cumberland  Press. 
50  cts. 

The  Outline  of  a  Bible  School  Cukriculum.  Prof.  Pease.  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  Press.     $1.50. 

The  Graded  Sunday  School.  Rev.  Henry  Meyer.  Eaton  &  Mains. 
75  cts. 

VI.— HISTORY  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION. 

Education  of  Man.    Froebel.    Appleton.    $1.50, 


INDEX 


INDEX 


A 

Acquiring   now    Ideas,    23. 

Activity,    .">.•? 

Adolisooncf.    Awkwardness,    83. 

Bodily   Changes,    83. 

Oharacteri-stics   of.    119. 

Development   of  Will,  108. 

"Gang"   Age,  105. 

Mental  Changes.  88. 

Traver  Life  of,  113. 

Ritual.    111. 

Sex    Instruction,   85. 

Social  Intercourse,  86. 
Affection.   Desire  for,    77. 
Aim    of    Education.    7. 
Analogy.   Law   of,   24. 
Apperception.   24,   25,   174. 
Apperception   Explained,   26. 
"Application."    165. 
"Association."    164. 
Association   of  Ideas.   27. 
Attention  and  Interest,  178. 
Attention.   How  not  to  get,  30. 

Mow  to  hold,  180. 

Invohintarv    and    Voluntary,    29, 
30. 

Types  of.  .SO. 

Variation  in.  182. 

Will,  basis  of.  31,   181. 


Biographv  Age.  64. 

Book  Work  Illustrated,  233. 

Brain,   Cortex   of.    16. 

Effect  of  Stimulants  on,  12. 

Weight  of.  12. 

White  and  (Jray  matter  in,  11. 


Cells,    Nerve.    14. 

Tissue,   14. 
Cerebellum.  10. 
Cerebrum.   11.   12,  16. 
Certainty.    Instinct  of,  79. 
Character,  5. 

Effect  of  Heredity  upon,  4. 

Influence  of  Environment  upon.  4. 
Characteristics.    Table    of,    68,    81, 

119.   130. 
Child,  Concreteness  in,   63. 

Curiosity   of.   61. 

Dependence  of,   58. 

Effect  of  Music  on.  54. 

Imitativeness  in.  60. 

In   Sunday  School,  3. 


Knowledge  of,   172. 

Motor  Type  of,  39,  124. 

Personification  of,  59. 

Psychology  of,  7. 

Savagery   in,   57. 

Sensory  Type  of,  124. 

Self-Unconsciousness,  60. 

Types  of.   123. 

Visual  Type  of,   39. 

Vocabulary  of,  173. 
Choice   and    Decision.    259. 
Collecting  Instinct,   78. 
Concreteness,  63. 
Conscience,  Definitions  of,   107. 

Rise  in  Puberty,  80. 

LTndeveloped  in  small  children,  64. 
Consciousness,   Stream  of,  20. 
Constructiveness,  Instinct  of,  79. 
Conversion  Period,  96. 
Cortex  of  Brain,  16. 
Courage,  72. 
Curiosity,   61. 
Curriculum  for  Small  School,  138. 

Principles   of  well-rounded,   138. 

Large  School  Standard,  140,  142. 

D 

Decision  and  Choice,  259. 
Deduction  versus  Induction,  169. 
Deliberation.   43,   44. 
Dependent  Age.  58. 
Desire  and. Will,  258. 
Disorder.  199,  202. 
"Doing,"    Cultivation   of,   253. 
Doubting  Period,  95. 
Dualism,  111. 

E 
Education,   3. 

Aim   of,   7. 

In  Infancv.  7. 
"Elaboration,"    164. 
Enlightenment,  108. 
Environment,   4. 

Early  Impressions  of,  6. 
Ethical  Dualism,   111. 
Examinations,  Value  of,  170. 

F 

Faith  and  Trust  of  Children,  58. 
Fatigue,  Kinds  of,  185. 

Signs  of,   185. 
Foreword,    vii. 
Forgetting,   35,  246. 
Functioning  In  Doing,  5. 


276 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY 


■•Gang"  Age,  105. 

Grading,  Practical  Ways  of,   136. 

The  Small   School,   134. 

What  it  is,   135. 
Grammar  School,  146. 

H 

Habits,   Formation  of,  47,   48. 

Rules  of  formation,  251. 

Specialization  in  formation,  250. 

Sub-conscious  Field,  48. 

Training    of,    241. 
Hand   Work    (see   Manual  Work). 
Heredity,  4. 
Hero  Age,  70. 
Heuristic  Method,  166. 
High  School,  149. 
History   Age,   64. 
Human   Body.   Complexity  of,   14. 
Humor,  Crudity  of  in  Children,  75. 


Ideals,  Age  of,  91. 

Ideas,  Acquiring  of  new  ones,  23. 

Association  of,  27. 
Illustration,   Dangers  in,   224. 

Good,  224. 

How    to    Use.    223. 

Variety  of,  230. 
Imagination,   23. 
Imitation  in  Child,  60,  76. 
Impressions  of  Early  Environment, 

6. 
Impulsiveness,  71. 
Independence,  73. 
Induction  versus  Deduction,   169. 
Infancy,  Development  during,   7. 

Education   duiing,   7. 
Inhibition,  41. 

Types  of,  41. 
Instincts,  Educational  Value  of,  46. 

Native  and  Acquired,  45. 

Transitoriness  of,  46. 
Interest,  Basis  of  Attention,  29. 

False  Views  of,  184. 

How  to  Kill,   183. 

What  it  is,  178. 
Inter-relation    of    Intellect,    Feeling, 
and  Will,  263. 


Judgment,  Training  of,  259. 

K 
Kindergarten    School,    142. 

L 

Lesson   Correlation,  168. 

Functioning  of.  261. 

How  to  Prepare.  158. 

Introduction,    168. 

Plan  of  Development,  163. 

Keview,    170. 

Title,  168. 
"Lies"  of  Children,  62. 


M 

iManhood.   118. 

Manual   Work,   232. 

Map-\A'ork  in  Grammar  School,  148. 

Historical,   237. 

In   Flat,  237. 

Relief,   235. 
Memoriter  Work,  244,  247. 
Memory,    Kinds   Wanted,   241. 

Laws  of.   242. 

Retention  in,   76. 

Training  of,   241. 

Types,  38. 

Value   of,   35. 

Weak  in  Childhood,  66. 
Mental  Characteristics,  58. 
Modelic   Work,   237. 
Moi'al  Training,  Elements  of,  252. 
Motor  Children.  39,  124. 
Music,    Effect  of,   54. 

\ 

Nerve    Cells,    14. 
Nerves,   8,  9,    16. 
Neuron,  14. 
New    Education,    3. 
Novels,  Reading  of,  88. 

O 

Old  Education,  3. 
Order,  Agencies  for  keeping,  196. 
Definitions   of,    190. 
Difference   between    Securing   and 

Maintaining,    192. 
How  to   Secure.   193. 
Incentives  to.   198,   200. 
Use   Secondary   Ends  as  Motives, 
192. 
Ownership,    Its   Educational   Value, 
79. 


Pedagogy,   3. 
Penalties,  202. 
Personification,    59. 
I'hysical   Characteristics,   53. 
Play,   Love  of,  56. 
Post-Graduate  School,  150. 
"Preparation,"    163. 
"Presentation,"    164. 
Primary   School,    142. 
Psychology  of  the  Child,  7. 
Puberty    (see  Adolescence). 
Punishment,  65,   73. 
Pupils,  Troublesome,   183. 

Q 

Questlon-and-Answer  Books,  249. 
Questioning,  Character  of,  214. 

Curiosity  Kindled  by,  213. 

How  to  Learn   How,  214. 

Importance  of,   210. 

Kinds,  211. 

Method  of  in  Sunday  School.  211. 

Methods  of  Propounding,  218. 


INDEX 


UeadinK,   90. 

Ueasoninjr,  Dovi'lopment  of,  92,  245. 
"Recapitulation."    1()4. 
Recitation,     Balancing?     Instruction 
with.  206. 

Method  of  Conducting,  204. 
Rocolloction.    36. 
Reflection.   44. 
Relation    between    Mind    and    Body. 

121. 
Remembering,  37. 
Restlessness,   53. 
Reviews,  Importance  of,  170. 

Steps  in,  205. 
Ritual,   111. 
Romance,  Age  of,   88. 


S.  Andrews  Church  School,  152. 
Savagery  in   Children.   57. 
Self-Consciousness,    91. 

Sense   Perception,   28. 
Sensitiveness,  91. 
Sensory  Children,   124. 
Sex-attraction,  67,  86. 
Sex-differences,  124. 
Sex-instruction,   84. 
Sex-repellance,   67. 
Sex-unconsciousness.    67. 
Similarity,    Law   of.    24. 
Source  Method,  166. 
Spinal  Cord,  9. 
Stereoscopic  Work,  232. 
Storm  and  Stress  Period.  93. 
Storv  Age.   63. 

Marks  of  a  good  one.  226. 
Story-Telling,    How   to   Learn   How, 
228. 

Rules   for,    227. 
Stream   of   Consciousness,    20. 
Sub-conscious   Self,   23. 
Sunday  School,  Child  in,  3. 

Graded  (also  see  Grading),  134. 

How  to  Grade  a  small  one,  137. 


Teacher,   "Call"  of,  264. 

Definition  of,  264. 

Disorderly,   202. 
Teaching,  Deductive  Method,  165. 

Inductive    Method,    162. 

"Point  of  Contact,"  in,  171. 

Types  in,  171. 
Temperament,    Influence    on    Chris- 
tianity, 128. 

Influence  on  Education,  125. 

Race  Characteristics,  129. 
Text    Books,    Question-and-Answer, 
249. 

Source  Method,  166. 
Thinking,  28. 
Tissue  Cells,   14. 

Training,  Elements  of  Moral,  252. 
Truancy,   72. 

Trust  and  Faith  of  Children,  58, 
Types  of  Attention,  30, 
Types  of  Children,  123. 
Types    of   Memory,    38. 
Types  of  Will,  40. 

U 

Use  of  Types,   245. 

V 

Value   of   Memorv.    35. 
Visual  Children.  39. 
Vocabulary  of  Children,  173. 

W 

Weight   of   Brain,    12. 
Will,   39,  253. 

Breaking  of,   41,   264. 

Development  during  Adolescence, 
108. 

Effect   of  Music   on,   262. 

Training.   40,  241,  257. 

Types.   40. 
Womanhood,   118. 

Written-Answer  Work.  Reasons  for, 
248. 


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